The Tech space is constantly evolving, and it can sometimes feel like you need a translator just to keep up. Whether you’re a seasoned tech enthusiast or just trying to sound savvy in conversation, knowing the essential terms is crucial. From artificial intelligence to zero-day exploits, this A-Z guide breaks down the jargon, so you can stay in the know and navigate your way whenever you need to remind yourself how simple some complex terms may sometimes be. And if you’re just looking to level up your tech vocabulary, hop in!

A

• A/B Testing: A method of comparing two versions of a product or webpage to determine which performs better.

• Access control: Access control prevents unauthorized viewing, modification, or copying of data. IT staff use access control to restrict what users can do, which resources they have access to, and what functions they are allowed to perform.

• Access Control: A security technique that regulates who or what can view or use resources in a computing environment.

• Access tokens: Bits of code that signify a user has successfully authenticated their identity.

• ActiveX: Old online browser technology for downloading and embedding content on websites.

• Add-ons: Small bits of code or software applied to browsers to enhance functionality and user experience. Add-ons have evolved over the years. Toolbars, plug-ins, and extensions are all examples of browser add-ons.

• Adware: Software coded into online ads that record your personal data, website visits, and keystrokes to send you personalized ads. Popup ads and the sudden appearance of unfamiliar apps are the most common ways to recognize adware.

• Adware: Software that automatically displays or downloads advertising content, often unwanted, to a user's device.

• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A symmetric encryption algorithm used for securing sensitive information, widely adopted for data encryption.

• Agile: A project management methodology focused on iterative development, collaboration, and flexibility in responding to changes.

• Agile Manifesto: A document that outlines the core principles and values of Agile software development.

• Agile Software Development: A specific approach to software development that emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and continuous improvement.

• AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML): A technique for creating fast, dynamic web pages by allowing parts of a web page to be updated asynchronously, without having to reload the whole page.

• Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem or completing a task, often used in programming and data processing.

• Anti-replay protection: Network standards that stop hackers from re-using data

• Antivirus: Software designed to detect, prevent, and remove malware and other malicious software.

• API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols for building and interacting with software applications. It allows different software systems to communicate with each other.

• API Gateway: A server that acts as an entry point for managing and routing API calls, often providing security, load balancing, and monitoring capabilities.

• APT (Advanced Persistent Threat): A prolonged and targeted cyberattack in which an intruder gains access to a network and remains undetected for an extended period.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence by machines, especially computer systems, including learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

• Assembler: A tool that translates assembly language into machine code that can be executed by a computer.

• Asymmetric encryption: Uses a public key and a private key. It takes longer than symmetric encryption because it is more complex. It is used for smaller amounts of data. It is used in Authentication, digital certificates, digital signatures, and key exchange – where a symmetric encryption key is shared only to specific recipients.

• Asynchronous: A type of communication where processes are independent and don’t need to wait for each other to complete, commonly used in programming and networking.

• Attenuation: The reduction in signal strength as it travels through a medium, and is often discussed in the context of networking and telecommunications.

• Authentication: The process of verifying the identity of a user or system, often through passwords, biometrics, or security tokens.

• Authentication header protocol (AH protocol): `Protocol that authenticates the sender and IP addresses.

• Autonomous Systems: Systems that can operate independently without human intervention, often related to AI and robotics.

• AWS (Amazon Web Services): A cloud computing platform provided by Amazon, offering a wide range of services such as storage, computing power, and databases.

B

• Back-end: The part of a website or application that handles the server-side logic, databases, and server infrastructure. It’s not visible to the user and is responsible for data management and business logic.

• Baiting: In social engineering, the use of a lure just like the bait or lure you'd use to catch a fish. Lures can be physical or logical.

• Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer across a network or internet connection, typically measured in bits per second (bps).

• Bash: A Unix shell and command language, commonly used for interacting with the operating system in Linux and macOS.

• Basic Input Output System (BIOS): The firmware that boots up Windows and Linux PCs, runs hardware checks, and starts the OS.

• Benchmarking: The process of testing and comparing the performance of hardware or software systems to industry standards or competitors.

• BI (Business Intelligence): Technologies, strategies, and practices used to analyze and manage business data, helping organizations make informed decisions.

• Big Data: Extremely large datasets that are analyzed computationally to reveal patterns, trends, and associations, especially relating to human behavior and interactions.

• Binary: A base-2 number system that uses only two symbols, typically 0 and 1. It's the foundation of all computing processes.

• Biometrics: A body scan that can confirm whether a person physically accessed a device, network, or area.

• BIOS Password: A security measure that restricts unauthorized access to the system BIOS.

• Bloatware: Unwanted trial software, usually pre-loaded on new devices. Aging bloatware is soon outdated and may have vulnerabilities.

• Blockchain: A decentralized, distributed digital ledger that records transactions across multiple computers in a secure, transparent, and tamper-resistant way.

• Blockchain Explorer: A tool used to view all transactions on a blockchain, helping users track the flow of funds or data.

• Blockchain Fork: A split in a blockchain, resulting from a change in the network’s protocol or differing versions of the software.

• Bluetooth: A wireless communication technology used for exchanging data between devices over short distances.

• Bootloader: A small program that loads the operating system into memory when a computer or device starts.

• Bootstrap: A popular front-end framework for developing responsive, mobile-first websites quickly and efficiently. Also refers to the process of starting a system or a process from scratch.

• Bot: An automated software application that performs repetitive tasks, such as web crawling, or in a malicious context, spam distribution.

• Botnet: A network of compromised computers, often controlled remotely by hackers, used for malicious activities such as DDoS attacks.

• Bridge: A device or software that connects two or more network segments, improving communication between them.

• Broadcast: The transmission of data to multiple recipients simultaneously over a network.

• Browser history: A list of every page you've visited and for how long. Browser histories help you find sites you visited, but they can also be used against you by family, hackers, or law enforcement. Use browser settings to clear history.

• Brute Force Attack: A hacking technique where multiple password combinations are tried in quick succession to gain unauthorized access to a system or account.

• Buffer overflow: A common type of DoS attack that sends a website more Internet traffic than it can handle.

• Bug: An error or flaw in a software program or system that causes it to behave unexpectedly or crash.

• Bus: A communication system that transfers data between different components of a computer, such as between the CPU and memory.

• Byte: A unit of digital information that consists of eight bits, commonly used to represent a single character in computing.

• Bytecode: A form of instruction set designed for efficient execution by a software interpreter, often used in languages like Java.

C

• Cache: A storage layer that temporarily holds frequently accessed data to improve performance, reducing the time it takes to retrieve data.

• CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart): A system designed to differentiate between human users and bots by asking users to perform tasks that are difficult for bots to complete.

• CDN (Content Delivery Network): A system of distributed servers that deliver web content, especially large media files, based on the geographic location of the user, the origin of the content, and the content delivery server.

• Certificate authority (CA): A trusted organization that issues digital certificates. The major CAs are Apple, Microsoft, Mozilla, and Google. Which CA your device uses depends on the operating system it’s running. Also called “Root certificate store.”

• Checksum: A value used to verify the integrity of data after it’s transmitted or stored by comparing it with an expected value.

• CI/CD (Continuous Integration/Continuous Delivery): A method of frequently delivering applications to customers by automating stages of app development, integration, testing, and deployment.

• CIA Triad: Confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Confidentiality means that data is protected from unauthorized access. Integrity means that data is protected from unauthorized changes. Availability means that you have access to your data whenever you need it.

• Cipher: An algorithm that is used to scramble plain text, so it is secure and unreadable to unauthorized users.

• Ciphertext: Plain text that is encrypted, which makes it unreadable.

• CLI (Command-Line Interface): A text-based interface used to interact with software or operating systems by typing commands.

• Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing services, such as servers, storage, databases, networking, software, and analytics, over the internet (“the cloud”).

• Cloud Infrastructure: The hardware and software components that provide the foundation for cloud computing, including servers, storage, networking, and virtualization software.

• Cloud Native: Describes applications that are designed to run in a cloud computing environment, optimized for scalability, resilience, and resource efficiency.

• Cloud Orchestration: The automated arrangement, coordination, and management of complex cloud services and infrastructure.

• Cloud Storage: A service that allows you to store data on remote servers accessed via the internet, rather than on local devices.

• Cluster: A set of connected computers that work together as a single system to provide high availability and reliability for tasks such as data processing and storage.

• Cold Boot Attack: A type of attack that involves extracting encryption keys from a computer's memory after a reboot, without waiting for it to fully shut down.

• Command Injection: A type of security vulnerability where an attacker can execute arbitrary commands on the host operating system via a vulnerable application.

• Company Confidential Information: Any information that is used to run a company, like intellectual property, product designs, procedures, plans, employee records, and financial data. (See Confidential information.)

• Compiler: A program that translates high-level programming code into machine code or intermediate code that can be executed by a computer.

• Concurrency: The ability of a system to handle multiple tasks or processes simultaneously; often a critical feature in modern computing.

• Container: A standard unit of software that packages up code and all its dependencies, so the application runs quickly and reliably from one computing environment to another.

• Containerization: A lightweight alternative to full machine virtualization that involves encapsulating an application and its dependencies in a "container" to ensure it runs consistently across different environments.

• Continuous Integration (CI): A software development practice where developers regularly merge their code changes into a shared repository, often verified by automated tests.

• Cookie(s): A small piece of data stored on the user's computer by a web browser while browsing a website, often used for tracking and remembering user information.

• Cookies, authentication: Authentication cookies save logins, usernames, and passwords, so you don’t have to remember them.

• Cookies, session: Session cookies are used only for one session. They are stored in RAM and are automatically deleted when the browsing session ends.

• Cookies, third-party: Third-party cookies are from sites you are not on. These track you across the web. Ads can generate cookies, even if you never click on them.

• Cookies, zombie: Zombie cookies are third-party cookies that don’t follow normal cookie protocols. They can store their code directly on your device to recreate themselves even after deletion. They are extremely difficult to remove. Websites may also use zombie cookies to ban specific users.

• CPU (Central Processing Unit): The primary component of a computer that performs most of the processing inside a computer.

• Cross-platform: Software or hardware that can run on multiple types of systems or devices, such as Windows, macOS, and Linux.

• Cross-site Scripting (XSS): A security vulnerability in web applications that allows attackers to inject malicious scripts into web pages viewed by other users.

• CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete): The four basic operations that can be performed on data in a database or software system.

• Cryptographic hash: A short string of numbers and letters created by running a password or file through an algorithm.

• Cryptography: The art of securing communication through codes and ciphers so that only intended recipients can read the message.

• CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): A stylesheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in HTML or XML, controlling the look and feel of web pages.

• Customer Confidential Information: Information customers or partners provide to companies, which includes PII and also things like purchase histories, and credit card information.

• Cyberattack: A malicious attempt to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorized access to a computer system or network.

• Cybersecurity: The practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks.

D

• Data: Raw values and facts are usually collected by automated systems. For example, page visits, link clicks, and monthly sales.

• Data analytics: The processing of raw data, like values or facts to create meaningful information.

• Data at rest: Data that resides on a storage device. The files aren't open or being transmitted anywhere. Data at rest can be encrypted at the file level, storage device level, and cloud level. Encryption at the file level lets you encrypt all your files on a storage device or just a select few. Data at rest is less vulnerable than data in motion, but it’s not immune from attacks.

• Data availability: Data availability means that authorized users have immediate and reliable access to their data. This includes granting access to authorized users with passwords and security questions.

• Database: A structured set of data held in a computer, typically accessed and managed by a database management system (DBMS).

• Database Schema: The structure of a database, including the tables, fields, relationships, and constraints that organize and define how data is stored and accessed.

• Data Breach: The unauthorized access and retrieval of sensitive information, often leading to exposure of personal or confidential data.

• Data breaches: Data breaches are when a data leak is caused intentionally by a cybercriminal. These occur when social engineering or phishing attacks trick employees into leaking sensitive credentials or information.

• Data capture: The collection of data from multiple sources and the secure storage of it in relational databases, or more commonly, semi-structured data warehouses. Data may be captured by server logs showing where customers browse, IoT sensors in home appliances and business technology, or customer and employee surveys or rating systems.

• Data confidentiality: The control of data access and the use of security tools like encryption and multifactor authentication (MFA) to keep data secure.

• Data correlation: When raw data points are analyzed to find connections or links. For example, Netflix uses tools that compare searches, views, and ratings so they can predict which movies and shows will be successful on their platform.

• Data-driven business decisions: Business decisions based on data capture, data correlation, and meaningful reporting.

• Data dumps: Data dumps are when cybercriminals dump stolen data onto the dark web for monetary gain. A data dump might include PII, PHI, bank account numbers, PINs, social security numbers, and more. Other cybercriminals buy and use data dumps for things like identity theft and password attacks.

• Data Encryption: The process of converting plain text into a coded format to prevent unauthorized access to the data.

• Data in motion: Data that is actively moving between two devices – meaning two computers, a mobile device, and a mail server, or your computer and your bank's online website. Data in motion is especially at risk for interception attacks like man-in-the-middle. Also called data in transit.

• Data integrity: The collection of actions and fail-safes that protect data. Data integrity guarantees that data is accurate, complete, and consistent.

• Data integrity (logical): Logical data integrity is the checks and protocols that protect data from human error and hackers. These confirm that data is correct and accurate as it’s used in different ways within an organization.

• Data integrity (physical): Physical data integrity is the collection of actions and fail-safes that protect the physical systems that store and process the data.

• Data leaks: The accidental exposure of confidential or sensitive data through a security vulnerability.

• Data Mining: The process of analyzing large sets of data to discover patterns, trends, and relationships that can be useful for decision-making.

• Data Packet: A unit of data that is transmitted over a network, containing both the data being sent and information about how to route it to its destination.

• Data Science: An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, algorithms, and systems to extract insights and knowledge from structured and unstructured data.

• Data Visualization: The graphical representation of information and data, using visual elements like charts, graphs, and maps to help users understand patterns and insights.

• Data Warehouse: A system used to store and analyze large amounts of structured data from multiple sources, often used for business intelligence and reporting.

• DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service): A cyberattack where multiple compromised systems, often infected with malware, are used to overwhelm a target with a flood of traffic, making it unavailable to users.

• Deadlock: A situation in computing where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for the other to release a resource.

• Debugging: The process of identifying and removing errors or bugs from computer hardware or software.

• Decryption key: (See Encryption key.)

• Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks with many layers (deep networks) to model complex patterns in large datasets, often used in AI applications like image recognition and natural language processing.

• Default usernames and passwords: The default login information that comes with new hardware or software.

• Denial of Service (DoS): Cyberattack, where a website or server is targeted with so much traffic that it overwhelms that system, degrading performance until the server is unable to respond.

• Denial of service attack (DoS attack): Cyberattack that floods a network with so much traffic that it crashes. DoS attack victims are typically high-profile, like government sites, banks, or social media sites. Sometimes, DoS attacks are used to distract from other attacks happening at the same time.

• Device lock: The literal locking of a device either physically, behind a locked door, or with a steel cable and padlock; or digitally with passwords or PINs.

• DevOps: A set of practices that combine software development (Dev) and IT operations (Ops) to shorten the systems development life cycle and deliver high-quality software quickly.

• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A network protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses to devices in a network, enabling them to communicate.

• Dictionary attacks: A type of password-cracking attack where hackers use words pulled from dictionaries or newspapers to crack passwords.

• Digital accounting: Investigating online and network activity to discover the reasons behind a certain outcome. Digital accounting is used in troubleshooting, security analysis, forensics, and hacking.

• Digital Certificate: An electronic document that uses a digital signature to bind a public key with an identity, such as a person or organization, used to secure communication and verify identities.

• Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): A law that makes it illegal to bypass copy protections or to develop technology that helps bypass copy protections.

• Digital products: Non-tangible assets a company owns, like software, online music, online courses, e-books, audiobooks, and web elements like WordPress templates or Shopify themes.

• Digital receipt: Encryption and authentication method used to prove that a message was sent from one party to another.

• Digital Rights Management (DRM): Technology used to control how digital content is accessed, copied, or distributed, often applied to media like music, movies, and ebooks.

• Digital signatures: A regular signature used in conjunction with a hardware or software token. This authenticates the signer. The sender sends an encrypted signature and a public decryption key to a recipient. If the recipient can decrypt the signature with the public key, that proves the sender signed it because they must have performed the encryption with the private key.

• Digital Twin: A virtual model or replica of a physical object, process, or system used for analysis, monitoring, and optimization in real time.

• Disaster Recovery: A set of policies and procedures for recovering from disruptions, such as system failures or cyberattacks, to ensure the continuity of IT systems and data.

• Distributed Computing: A computing approach where tasks are divided among multiple computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages.

• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS): A type of cyberattack where multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, typically a web server.

• Distributed denial of service attack (DDoS attack): A DoS attack made with a large collection of compromised, malware-infected computers known as a botnet. It's harder to identify a DDoS attack’s origin, which makes it harder to shut down. DDoS attacks are far more devastating than DoS attacks since hundreds or thousands of computers are used instead of just one.

• Distributed Ledger: A database that is consensually shared and synchronized across multiple sites, institutions, or geographies, often associated with blockchain technology.

• DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand, allowing users to access websites using easy-to-remember names.

• DNS Spoofing: A cyberattack where the DNS system is corrupted to redirect traffic from a legitimate website to a malicious site.

• Docker: A platform that uses containerization to create, deploy, and run applications in isolated environments, ensuring consistency across multiple systems.

• Domain Controller: A server in a Microsoft Windows environment that is responsible for managing user authentication and enforcing security policies.

• Drive encryption: The scrambling of a drive’s data so it’s unreadable.

• Dual-factor Authentication (2FA): An authentication method that requires two different forms of verification, typically a password and a second factor like a text message or authentication app, to enhance security.

• Dumpster diving: Dumpster diving is the act of physically searching through a literal dumpster to find something valuable. A company’s trash might contain lists of customer names, phone numbers, contact information, business plans, product designs, or an access code written on a Post-it note. Tech companies require document shredding and device destruction as a normal part of business because these can be stolen from the trash to harvest data that can be used for identity theft and data breaches. Or the data could be sold to hackers or a company's competitors

• Dynamic IP Address: An IP address that is assigned to a device temporarily and can change over time, typically assigned by DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).

E

• Eavesdropping: A form of cyberattack where the attacker secretly intercepts communications between two parties without their knowledge. Eavesdropping (or packet sniffing) attacks occur on wireless, wired, and phone connections.

• E-commerce: The buying and selling of goods or services over the internet, along with the transfer of money and data to complete these transactions.

• Edge Computing: A distributed computing model that brings data processing closer to the source of data generation (the edge of the network), reducing latency and improving efficiency.

• Egress Filtering: A security practice that controls the flow of traffic leaving a network to prevent sensitive information from being sent out or data exfiltration from occurring.

• Elasticity: In cloud computing, the ability of a system to automatically scale up or down based on demand, ensuring resources are efficiently allocated.

• Email management: Classifying email messages and deciding whether they should be saved or deleted. It helps prioritize emails, saves time, and increases productivity. It includes using folders and subfolders, using rules or filters, unsubscribing from email lists, and configuring settings to block spam.

• Email Spoofing: A type of cyberattack where the sender's email address is forged to appear as though it comes from a legitimate source, often used in phishing schemes.

• Emulator: A software or hardware that allows one computer system to behave like another, often used for running software designed for different platforms.

• Encapsulating security payload protocol (ESP protocol): Protocol that encrypts data and authenticates data and senders.

• Encryption: Encryption is the act of taking readable plain text and scrambling it into unreadable ciphertext with an algorithm, so it can only be read by a recipient that has the decryption key.

• Encryption and hashing algorithms: Algorithms that scramble data.

• Encryption key: A series of random, unique numbers combined with very powerful algorithms that are used to encrypt (or scramble) data before it is sent. The person on the receiving end has a decryption key that's used to decrypt (or unscramble) the data, so it's in a readable or usable format.

• Endpoint: A device or node that serves as the entry or exit point in a network, such as computers, mobile devices, or IoT devices.

• Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR): A cybersecurity technology that monitors and responds to suspicious activities on endpoints to prevent breaches and malicious actions.

• Endpoint Management: The process of monitoring, managing, and securing the various endpoints in a network, such as desktops, mobile devices, and servers.

• Endpoint Security: Measures taken to secure endpoints, or devices connected to a network, from cyber threats such as malware, phishing, and unauthorized access.

• End-to-End Encryption (E2EE): A method of encryption where only the communicating users can read the messages, ensuring that data is encrypted on the sender's device and only decrypted on the recipient’s device.

• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Software used by organizations to manage business activities such as accounting, procurement, project management, and supply chain operations.

• Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD): A graphical representation of the relationships between entities in a database, used to design and model databases.

• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): A type of non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed using ultraviolet light, commonly used in older systems.

• Error 404: An HTTP status code indicating that the requested page could not be found on the server, often displayed when a link is broken or the URL is incorrect.

• Error Handling: The process of managing and responding to errors in a software application, ensuring that failures are handled gracefully and do not disrupt functionality.

• Error Log: A record of errors encountered during the execution of a program or system, used for debugging and system monitoring.

• Escalation of Privileges: A security breach where an attacker gains elevated access to restricted resources by exploiting vulnerabilities or design flaws.

• Ethernet: A widely used technology for local area networks (LANs), allowing devices to communicate with each other over a wired connection.

• Ethernet Cable: A cable used to connect devices in a wired network, typically to provide a stable, high-speed internet connection.

• Ethernet Frame: The basic unit of data transmitted over an Ethernet network, containing source and destination addresses, error-checking data, and the actual payload (data being transferred)

• Ethernet Switch: A network device that connects multiple devices within a LAN, allowing them to communicate with each other by sending data only to the device that needs it.

• Ethical Hacking: The practice of intentionally probing a system’s security, with permission, to find vulnerabilities that could be exploited by malicious hackers.

• Event-Driven Architecture (EDA): A software architecture pattern where applications communicate by producing and consuming events, allowing for real-time data processing and responsiveness.

• Executable: A file that contains a program or set of instructions that a computer can directly execute to perform a specific function or task.

• Exploit: A piece of software, data, or command that takes advantage of a vulnerability in a system, often used in cyberattacks to gain unauthorized access.

• Exploits: Pieces of code that use vulnerabilities in hardware or software to get into a system. Malware-infected websites use exploits to automatically download malware to a system. This is called a drive-by download.

• Extended Reality (XR): An umbrella term that encompasses all immersive technologies, including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR).

• Extension: A small piece of source code that adds a function or feature to a browser. Ad-blockers and in-browser PDF readers are extensions. Since extensions are given special authorizations within the browser, they are attractive targets for attackers. (See Add-ons.)

• Extranet: A private network that allows access to certain external users, often used to share information securely between a business and its partners or customers.

F

• Fail-fast: A software development principle that encourages systems to stop operation as soon as an error occurs, rather than continuing with potential issues, which can help identify and fix problems earlier.

• Failover: A backup operational mode in which the functions of a system are assumed by a secondary system when the primary one fails, ensuring high availability of services.

• Fast Ethernet: An Ethernet standard that supports data transfer rates of up to 100 Mbps, typically used in local area networks (LANs).

• Fault Tolerance: The ability of a system to continue operating properly in the event of a failure of one or more of its components. Fault-tolerant systems are designed to ensure high availability and reliability.

• Federated Identity: A system that allows users to access multiple applications or systems with a single set of credentials, often through a trusted third party. It's commonly used in single sign-on (SSO) systems.

• Fetch: In web development, "fetch" refers to the API used to make network requests to retrieve resources (like data) from servers. It's commonly used in JavaScript to handle HTTP requests.

• Fiber Optic: A high-speed data transmission medium that uses light to carry data through thin, flexible fibers of glass or plastic. It is widely used in telecommunications and internet infrastructure for faster data transfer over long distances.

• Field: In database management, a field is a single piece of data or attribute for a record. For example, in a database of customers, the fields could include "Name," "Email," and "Phone Number."

• Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA): An integrated circuit that can be programmed after manufacturing to perform specific tasks, often used in hardware acceleration and prototyping.

• File Compression: The process of reducing the size of a file by encoding its data more efficiently. Compression is used to save storage space or decrease transmission times. Common formats include ZIP, RAR, and GZIP.

• File integrity monitoring (FIM): Software that audits sensitive files and folders to ensure all activity is authorized.

• File System: A method and structure used by an operating system to manage and store files on storage devices, such as hard drives and SSDs. Examples include NTFS, FAT32, and ext4.

• Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS): A standard that defines the directory structure and directory contents in Unix-like operating systems, providing consistency across systems.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and server over a TCP-based network, such as the internet.

• Fingerprinting: A method used to uniquely identify devices, users, or browsers by collecting information like IP addresses, operating systems, browser versions, and more, often used in tracking or security.

• Finite State Machine (FSM): A computational model used to design algorithms, circuits, or software by defining a limited set of states and transitions between them based on inputs.

• Firewall: A network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. For example, schools and businesses use firewalls to block social media sites, age-inappropriate content, and certain types of downloads.

• Firmware: Firmware is software that tells hardware how to behave. It’s typically stored in read-only memory (ROM) and used in devices like routers, cameras, and smartphones.

• Firmware Over-the-Air (FOTA): A method of delivering firmware updates to devices wirelessly, commonly used in mobile phones, smart devices, and IoT devices.

• Firmware password: A security feature that requires a correct password in order to start a system’s OS. Also called ‘firmware password.” (See Firmware and BIOS.)

• Flash Memory: A type of non-volatile memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It's commonly used in USB drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and memory cards.

• Floating License: A software licensing model that allows a certain number of users to share a limited number of licenses, where the software can be installed on multiple devices, but only the allowed number of users can use it simultaneously.

• Floating Point: A numerical representation used in computers to handle very large or very small numbers by storing them as fractions. Floating-point arithmetic is essential for scientific calculations.

• Flooding: In networking, flooding refers to sending data packets to all nodes in a network, regardless of their destination, which can overwhelm network resources if misused.

• Foreign Key: In databases, a foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that uniquely identifies a row in another table, establishing a relationship between the two tables.

• Fork: In software development, a fork occurs when developers copy a codebase from an existing software project to create a separate, independent version. Forking is common in open-source projects.

• Fragmentation: A condition where storage space is used inefficiently, causing data to be split into smaller pieces scattered across a disk or file system, which can slow down performance.

• Framework: A pre-written code base or platform that provides developers with a foundation to build and organize applications more efficiently. Examples include Angular (for front-end), Django (for back-end), and Spring (for Java-based applications).

• Framework Agreement: In cloud computing or IT procurement, this refers to a set of agreements or terms that predefine conditions under which future contracts or collaborations will take place.

• Front-end: The part of a software application or website that interacts with users. It includes everything a user sees and interacts with, such as user interfaces, buttons, and design elements. Common front-end languages include HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.

• Full Stack Developer: A developer who has the skills and knowledge to work on both the front-end (client side) and back-end (server side) of a web application.

• Function: In programming, a block of code designed to perform a specific task. Functions can be reused throughout the code, reducing redundancy and improving readability.

G

• Game Engine: A software framework designed to build and develop video games. It provides game developers with tools for rendering graphics, managing physics, and handling user input. Popular examples include Unity and Unreal Engine.

• Gantt Chart: A visual project management tool that represents the start and finish dates of tasks over time, often used in software development to track progress and deadlines.

• Garbage Collection: An automatic memory management process in programming that frees up memory that is no longer in use or unreachable, preventing memory leaks.

• Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO): A concept in computing that states flawed or bad input data will produce flawed or bad output, emphasizing the importance of data quality in computing and analytics.

• Gateway: A network node that serves as a key stopping point for data on its way to or from other networks, often translating data between different network protocols.

• Gateway Protocol: A protocol used to manage traffic between different networks, often involving the conversion of data from one format to another. An example is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

• General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): Set of regulations that mandate digital privacy for all countries in the European Union.

• Geofencing: A technology that creates a virtual boundary in the real world, allowing systems to trigger a response when a device enters or leaves a specific area, often used in marketing, location-based services, and security.

• Geolocation: The process of identifying the real-world geographical location of a device, such as a smartphone or a computer, using technologies like GPS, Wi-Fi, and IP addresses.

• Ghosting: In technology, ghosting refers to the phenomenon where a user's input lags or isn't registered, commonly seen in hardware like keyboards or display monitors, or when the images on a screen persist longer than intended.

• Gigabit Ethernet: A version of the Ethernet standard that supports data transfer rates of up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps), commonly used for high-speed wired networks.

• Gigabyte (GB): A unit of digital information storage equal to approximately 1 billion bytes (specifically, 1,073,741,824 bytes). Commonly used to measure file sizes and storage capacity.

• GigaFLOP: A measure of computer performance, representing one billion floating-point operations per second. It's often used to compare the computational power of supercomputers or GPUs.

• Git: A widely used version control system for tracking changes in source code during software development. It enables multiple developers to collaborate on a project simultaneously while managing version history.

• GitHub: A web-based platform for hosting and managing Git repositories. It provides tools for version control, collaboration, and software development project management.

• GNU/Linux: A family of free and open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel and GNU software. It's commonly used in servers, desktops, and mobile devices.

• Google Cloud: A suite of cloud computing services offered by Google, including data storage, machine learning, analytics, and other services for developers and enterprises.

• GPG (GNU Privacy Guard): A free software tool that provides encryption and signing services for data communication, allowing users to encrypt files, emails, and other communications securely.

• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): A mobile data service available to users of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) networks that provides moderate-speed data transfer.

• GPU (Graphics Processing Unit): A specialized processor originally designed to accelerate the rendering of images, video, and animations. GPUs are now also used for general-purpose computing tasks, especially in AI and machine learning.

• Granularity: In computing, granularity refers to the level of detail or size of a single unit of work. For example, "fine granularity" means small tasks, while "coarse granularity" means larger tasks.

• Graph Database: A database designed to handle and store data in a graph format, where entities are represented as nodes, and relationships are represented as edges. This is particularly useful in scenarios involving complex relationships, like social networks.

• Graphical User Interface (GUI): A type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices using graphical icons and visual indicators, as opposed to text-based interfaces, like command-line interfaces.

• Gray Hat Hacker: A hacker who may sometimes violate laws or ethical standards but does not have malicious intent. They typically exploit vulnerabilities to point them out without intending to cause harm.

• Green IT (Green Computing): Practices and technologies that promote energy efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of computing resources, focusing on eco-friendly hardware design and reducing electronic waste.

• Greynet: A collection of applications, typically not authorized by an organization’s IT department, that can cause security vulnerabilities, such as peer-to-peer applications or unauthorized messaging systems.

• Grid Computing: A distributed computing model in which multiple computers work together on a single task by dividing it into smaller parts, often used for large-scale data analysis and scientific computing.

• Group Policy: A feature in Microsoft Windows that provides centralized management and configuration of operating systems, applications, and users’ settings in an Active Directory environment.

• GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): A standard developed to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) mobile networks, still in use today for voice calls and SMS.

• Guest OS: The operating system that runs inside a virtual machine (VM). It’s managed by the host operating system and runs on a hypervisor in a virtualized environment.

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• Hadoop: An open-source framework used for processing and storing large datasets in a distributed computing environment. Hadoop can handle vast amounts of data and is commonly used for big data analytics.

• Haptic Technology: Technology that interacts with a user through the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions. It's often used in devices like smartphones or gaming controllers to provide feedback.

• Hard Disk Drive (HDD): A traditional storage device that uses spinning disks (platters) to read and write data. It's slower than modern solid-state drives (SSDs) but offers higher storage capacities at a lower cost.

• Hardening: The process of securing a device to minimize vulnerabilities. This includes disabling unneeded device features, regularly updating a device’s firmware, OS, and software, and using firewalls, VPNs, and antimalware. (See Patches.)

• Hash Collision: A situation in which two different inputs to a hash function produce the same output, which can be a security risk in cryptographic systems.

• Hash Function: A function that converts input data of any size into a fixed-size string, which typically represents the data in a condensed form. It’s commonly used in cryptographic applications to secure data.

• Hashing: A process used in computer security to transform data (like a password) into a fixed-length string of characters, which is typically a one-way encryption that cannot be reversed back to the original input. Hashes are used to verify the integrity of data.

• HCI (Human-Computer Interaction): The study and design of the interfaces between people (users) and computers. HCI focuses on improving usability and creating efficient, user-friendly systems.

• Header: In web development, a header can refer to the section at the top of a web page containing navigation links or titles. In networking, headers are sections of data packets that contain important control information like the sender and recipient addresses.

• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA): Set of regulations that mandate the use and disclosure of protected health information in America.

• Heap: In computing, the heap is a region of memory used for dynamic memory allocation where variables are stored, managed, and released during runtime. It contrasts with stack memory, which is used for static memory allocation.

• Heatmap: A data visualization technique used to represent the intensity of data points, often used in user experience design and web analytics to show where users are interacting most frequently on a webpage.

• Hexadecimal (Hex): A base-16 numbering system commonly used in computing as a human-friendly representation of binary values. It uses numbers 0-9 and letters A-F to represent values from 0 to 15.

• Hierarchical Database: A database model in which data is organized into a tree-like structure, where each record has a single parent and can have multiple children, resembling a hierarchy.

• High Availability (HA): A system design approach that ensures services are consistently available with minimal downtime, often achieved through redundancy, failover, and load balancing techniques.

• Honeypot: A security mechanism that creates a decoy or fake system to lure attackers. It helps detect, deflect, or study attempts to gain unauthorized access to information systems.

• Host: A computer or device on a network that offers services or resources to other machines, typically referred to as clients. Hosts are integral to both local and remote networking setups.

• Hotfix: A quick fix applied to a system or software to correct an urgent issue, typically implemented without a full system restart or the usual software update process.

• Hotspot: A physical location where people can access the internet, typically using Wi-Fi, either for free or for a fee. Mobile hotspots allow users to share a cellular connection with other devices.

• HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness): A color model used in digital image processing and design that describes colors in terms of three components: hue (the type of color), saturation (intensity of the color), and lightness (brightness of the color).

• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The standard language used to create and design web pages. HTML defines the structure of web content, using elements like paragraphs, headings, and links.

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for transmitting hypertext (web pages) over the internet. It defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and how web servers and browsers should respond to various commands.

• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): An extension of HTTP that adds a layer of security using encryption (SSL/TLS). It ensures that data transferred between a user’s browser and a website is secure and encrypted.

• HTTP Status Code: A numerical code sent by a web server in response to a request made by a client (usually a browser). Common codes include 200 (OK), 404 (Not Found), and 500 (Internal Server Error).

• HTTPS websites: Secure HTTP, or HTTPS, protocol provides an encrypted connection between you and the sites that use it. Most commercial websites, social networking sites, or sites that offer a customer login use HTTPS. The easiest way to tell is to see if a website is HTTPS is if the URL starts with HTTPS. Or you can look for a lock icon in your browser’s URL window to confirm that site’s digital certificate and other security information. HTTPS websites only provides a secure connection between you and the web server. A site can use HTTPS and still try to scam users or be compromised in some way. (See HTTP websites and SSL certificates.)

• HTTP websites: Websites relying on the HTTP protocol are not secure, especially when visited over public wifi. Everything that you send and receive is in plain text. It makes you an easy target for cybercriminals. (See HTTPS websites.)

• Hub: A basic networking device that connects multiple computers or devices in a network and allows them to communicate. Unlike a switch, a hub sends data to all connected devices, which can lead to network inefficiencies.

• Hybrid App: A mobile app that combines elements of both native apps (designed for a specific platform) and web apps (which are accessible via web browsers). Hybrid apps are typically built using web technologies like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, but run in a native container.

• Hybrid Cloud: A computing environment that combines on-premise infrastructure (private cloud) with public cloud services, allowing data and applications to be shared between them.

• Hybrid Drive: A storage device that combines a traditional hard disk drive (HDD) with a solid-state drive (SSD) to offer a balance of large capacity (from the HDD) and faster access speed (from the SSD).

• Hyperlink: A link in a web page or document that, when clicked, takes the user to another web page, document, or section within the same page. Hyperlinks are fundamental to web navigation.

• Hypertext: Text displayed on a computer or device that contains links to other texts or media, allowing users to navigate to related information by clicking on links.

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Script protocol (HTTP protocol): A protocol that governs the flow of online traffic.

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Script Secure protocol (HTTPS protocol): A protocol that governs the flow of online traffic and provides encryption for security.

• Hyper-Threading: A technology used in some Intel processors that allows a single physical processor to act like two logical processors, improving parallel execution and performance in multi-threaded tasks.

• Hypervisor: Software that creates and manages virtual machines (VMs) by allowing multiple operating systems to run concurrently on a host machine. Hypervisors can be categorized into Type 1 (bare-metal) and Type 2 (hosted).

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• ICMP flood: Common type of DoS attack where diagnostic pings are sent to every computer on a network. Each computer pings every other computer, and so on, until the network crashes.

• IDE (Integrated Development Environment): A software application that provides a comprehensive suite of tools for developers to write, edit, compile, and debug code. Examples include Visual Studio, Eclipse, and IntelliJ IDEA.

• IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics): An interface standard for connecting storage devices like hard drives and optical drives to a computer's motherboard. Although largely replaced by SATA, it was widely used in older computers.

• Identity Access Management (IAM): A framework of policies and technologies to ensure the right individuals have the appropriate access to technology resources. It’s crucial for managing permissions in cloud environments.

• Identity fraud: The act of using the personal, private, or financial information stolen from victims to commit fraud. (See Identity theft.)

• Identity theft: The act of stealing personal, private, or financial information from a person with the intent of using it to assume the victim’s identity and to commit fraud. (See Identity fraud.)

• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): A protocol used by email clients to retrieve messages from a mail server. Unlike POP3, IMAP allows users to view and manage their emails on multiple devices without downloading them.

• Immutable: In computing, an immutable object or data structure is one that, once created, cannot be changed. This concept is often used in functional programming to prevent side effects.

• Impersonation: When a hacker sets up a public wifi network that seems legitimate. Once a user connects, login credentials, session information, and PII can be intercepted. Or when a hacker sets up a fake website that looks and feels exactly like a real website, such as a well-known bank or other high-profile site. They may send fake email or text links (known as phishing) to trick you into visiting the fake site so they can steal your credentials to the real site and install malware on your device. This is also called social engineering.

• Incognito mode: (See Private browsing.)

• Increment: In programming, to increment means to increase a numeric value, typically by 1. This is often done using the increment operator ++ in languages like C and Java.

• Incremental Backup: A type of backup that only saves the data that has changed or been added since the last backup, rather than copying all data again. It reduces backup time and storage requirements.

• Incremental Development: A software development approach where the system is designed, implemented, and tested incrementally (one step at a time) until the complete system is ready.

• Indexing: In databases, indexing refers to creating a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table. It works like an index in a book, allowing faster searches for information.

• Information: A summary of raw data. For example, positive or negative results that happen after some specific change. (See Data, Insights, and Data analytics.)

• Information asset: Information or data that has value. Like patient records, customer information, and intellectual property. Information assets can exist physically, on paper, on disks or other media, or they can exist electronically in databases and files.

• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): A cloud computing service that provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. It allows businesses to rent servers, storage, and networking infrastructure instead of owning physical hardware.

• Inheritance: In object-oriented programming (OOP), inheritance is a mechanism by which one class can inherit the properties and methods of another class. It promotes code reuse and establishes a hierarchical relationship between classes.

• Injection Attack: A type of security vulnerability where an attacker sends malicious input into a program, often through forms or query parameters, to execute unintended commands. SQL injection is a common type.

• Input/Output (I/O): Refers to the communication between a computer and the outside world, including devices such as keyboards, mice, printers, and displays. It also refers to data read from or written to external devices.

• Insights: Conclusions based on the results of information analysis. Meaningful business decisions are based on insights. For example, if a positive trend occurs after store hours are changed, the right business decision would be to maintain those new hours. (See Information, Data, and Data analytics.)

• Installer: A program used to install software on a computer. It guides the user through the installation process and places the necessary files and configurations in the appropriate directories.

• Instance: In cloud computing, an instance refers to a virtual server that runs within a cloud environment. Users can spin up instances on demand to run applications or services.

• Instance Method: In object-oriented programming, an instance method is a method that is defined in a class and can be called on instances of that class. It operates on the data contained within the instance.

• Instance Variable: In programming, an instance variable is a variable that is defined inside a class but outside of methods. It represents the data unique to each instance (object) of a class.

• Instruction Set: A collection of commands or operations that a CPU can execute. Each processor has its own instruction set architecture (ISA), such as x86 or ARM.

• Integrated Circuit (IC): A set of electronic circuits on a small chip of semiconductor material, commonly used in processors and other electronic devices. Also known as a microchip.

• Integrated Graphics: A type of graphics processing unit (GPU) that is built into the CPU rather than being a separate, dedicated card. It shares memory with the CPU and is generally less powerful than dedicated GPUs but consumes less power.

• Integrated Test: A type of software testing where individual units or modules are combined and tested as a group to ensure they work together as intended.

• Integrity: In cybersecurity, integrity refers to the accuracy and consistency of data over its lifecycle. Integrity is compromised if data is tampered with or altered without authorization.

• Intellectual property (IP): Creations of the mind that are generally are not tangible. Often protected by copyright, trademark, and patent law. Examples of IP include industrial designs, trade secrets, research discoveries, and even some employee knowledge. Companies use a legally binding document called a Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA) to prevent the sharing of IP and other sensitive information.

• Interface: In computing, an interface refers to a point of interaction between software, hardware, or the user. For example, a graphical user interface (GUI) allows users to interact with software through visual elements like buttons and windows.

• Internet key exchange (IKE): Secure exchange of cryptographic keys. (See IPsec.)

• Internet Protocol Security (IPsec): A suite of network standards and protocols that use cryptography to protect data traveling over the Internet. The core protocols for the IPsec suite are the AH and ESP protocols. To support data security, the IPsec suite uses security associations (SA), Internet key exchange (IKE), encryption and hashing algorithms, and anti-replay protection. IPsec has two modes: tunnel mode and transport mode.

• Interpreter: A program that translates high-level programming language code into machine-readable code on the fly, executing it line-by-line, as opposed to compiling the entire program beforehand.

• Interrupt: A signal sent to the processor to notify it of an event that needs immediate attention. This can be from hardware or software and is a way for devices to communicate with the CPU without waiting for its current task to finish.

• Intranet: A private network used within an organization to share information, resources, and services. It is not accessible to the general public like the internet.

• Intrusion Detection System (IDS): A system that monitors network traffic or system activity for suspicious activity or policy violations. It can alert administrators to potential security threats.

• IoC (Inversion of Control): A design principle in software development where the control of object creation and management is inverted from the object itself to a framework or external component. It’s commonly used in dependency injection.

• IoT (Internet of Things): A network of physical devices (like smart thermostats, cars, or home appliances) connected to the internet, allowing them to collect and exchange data.

• IP (Internet Protocol): A set of rules that governs how data is sent and received over the Internet. Every device connected to the internet has an IP address, which helps identify and locate it on the network.

• IP Address: A unique string of numbers assigned to each device connected to a network. It can be either IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) or IPv6, and is essential for communication between devices on the internet.

• IPsec (Internet Protocol Security): A suite of protocols used to secure internet communication by authenticating and encrypting each IP packet in a data stream. It is often used in VPNs (Virtual Private Networks).

• IPsec transport mode: In IPsec transport mode, the IP header of the original data packet is left unencrypted. Only the content of the data packet is encrypted. Transport mode is common in host-to-site VPN. (See IPsec.)

• IPsec tunnel mode: In IPsec tunnel mode, the entire data packet is wrapped in a new packet, encrypted, and given a new header. Tunnel mode is common in site-to-site VPN. (See IPsec.)

• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): The fourth version of the Internet Protocol, which uses 32-bit addresses. It is the most widely used protocol for routing traffic across the internet but is being gradually replaced by IPv6 due to address exhaustion.

• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): The latest version of the Internet Protocol that uses 128-bit addresses, providing a significantly larger pool of addresses compared to IPv4. It’s designed to accommodate the growing number of devices on the internet.

• ISO (International Organization for Standardization): An independent organization that develops and publishes international standards across various industries, including technology. In computing, it is commonly associated with ISO image files.

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• J2EE (Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition): A platform for building and deploying enterprise applications in Java. It includes APIs for web services, component-based architectures, and distributed applications.

• Jailbreaking: When users remove device restrictions on Apple iPhones so they can make changes and install non-approved apps. This adds functionality but also adds vulnerability. It is harder to jailbreak newer model phones, and there is less reason for it with updated features and app selections. (See Rooting.)

• Jamstack: A modern web development architecture based on client-side JavaScript, reusable APIs, and prebuilt Markup. It aims to make websites faster and more secure by decoupling the front-end from the back-end.

• JAR (Java ARchive): A package file format used to bundle multiple Java class files, associated metadata, and resources (text, images, etc.) into one file for distribution. It is commonly used for deploying Java applications and libraries.

• Java: A high-level, object-oriented programming language that is widely used for building cross-platform applications. Known for its "write once, run anywhere" capability, Java is popular for web, mobile, and enterprise applications..

• JavaBeans: A reusable software component model in Java. JavaBeans are classes that encapsulate multiple objects into a single object, often used for building dynamic, platform-independent software.

• JavaFX: A software platform for creating and delivering desktop applications as well as rich internet applications. JavaFX is designed to replace Swing as the standard GUI library for Java applications.

• JavaScript: A scripting language primarily used to create interactive and dynamic content on websites. JavaScript is essential for front-end web development and is also used on the server side with environments like Node.js.

• JBOD (Just a Bunch Of Disks): A storage configuration where multiple hard drives are combined but not in a RAID configuration. Each disk works independently, and there is no redundancy.

• JBoss: A Java-based application server that is widely used for deploying Java applications, especially enterprise-level applications. JBoss provides a range of services like security, transactions, and resource management.

• JDK (Java Development Kit): A software development kit used to develop Java applications. It includes the JRE, development tools like compilers, and libraries needed to build Java programs.

• Jenkins: An open-source automation server that helps automate parts of software development processes, like building, testing, and deploying code. Jenkins is widely used in DevOps for continuous integration (CI) and continuous delivery (CD).

• Jetty: An open-source HTTP server and Java Servlet container. Jetty is used for serving web applications and is often embedded into other applications or frameworks as a lightweight server.

• JIT (Just-In-Time) Compilation: A runtime optimization technique where code is compiled into machine language just before it is executed. It is used in environments like the JVM and some JavaScript engines to improve performance.

• JNDI (Java Naming and Directory Interface): A Java API used to access different naming and directory services, allowing applications to look up objects like resources, users, or configuration parameters in a directory.

• Job Scheduling: In computing, job scheduling refers to the process of automating the execution of tasks (jobs) at specific times or intervals. It’s common in batch processing systems, cloud environments, and task automation frameworks.

• JPA (Java Persistence API): A specification for managing relational data in Java applications. It provides a way to map Java objects to database tables, simplifying database operations.

• jQuery: A fast, small, and feature-rich JavaScript library that simplifies things like HTML document traversal and manipulation, event handling, and animation. It is widely used to make web development easier.

• JRE (Java Runtime Environment): A part of the Java Development Kit (JDK) that contains the libraries and other components necessary to run applications written in the Java programming language. The JRE does not include development tools like compilers.

• JSON (JavaScript Object Notation): A lightweight data-interchange format that is easy for humans to read and write and easy for machines to parse and generate. It is commonly used for transmitting data between a server and a web application.

• JSONP (JSON with Padding): A technique used in web development to request data from a server residing in a different domain, overcoming the same-origin policy limitations. It allows JSON data to be retrieved without violating browser security restrictions.

• JSP (JavaServer Pages): A server-side technology that enables web developers to create dynamically generated web pages based on HTML, XML, or other document types. JSPs are processed on the server and sent to the client’s browser.

• JTAG (Joint Test Action Group): A standard for testing and debugging integrated circuits. JTAG is commonly used for testing hardware, including processors and microcontrollers, to ensure they function correctly during development.

• JUnit: A testing framework for Java applications. It allows developers to write and run repeatable tests and is often used in Test-Driven Development (TDD) and continuous integration.

• Jupyter Notebook: An open-source web application that allows you to create and share documents containing live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text. It is commonly used for data science, machine learning, and academic research.

• JVM (Java Virtual Machine): An abstract computing machine that enables a computer to run Java programs. It interprets Java bytecode and converts it into machine code, allowing Java applications to run on any device that has a JVM installed.

• JWT (JSON Web Token): A compact, URL-safe way of representing claims between two parties. It is commonly used for authentication and authorization in web applications and APIs.

K

• Kafka (Apache Kafka): A distributed event streaming platform primarily used for building real-time data pipelines and streaming applications. It handles large-scale data streams efficiently across various systems.

• Kerberos: A network authentication protocol designed to provide strong authentication for client-server applications using secret-key cryptography. It’s widely used in enterprise networks.

• Kernel: The core component of an operating system responsible for managing system resources like memory, processes, and hardware. It acts as a bridge between applications and the underlying hardware.

• Kext (Kernel Extension): A module or piece of code that can extend the functionality of the macOS kernel. It allows third-party developers to add custom hardware drivers or low-level functionality.

• Keylogger: A type of malware or software that records keystrokes made by a user on their device, often used by cybercriminals to capture sensitive information like passwords or credit card numbers.

• Key Management: Refers to the process of managing cryptographic keys, which includes their generation, distribution, storage, and destruction. It’s crucial for maintaining secure communication and data protection.

• Key Pair: A set of two cryptographic keys—one public and one private—used in asymmetric encryption. The public key is shared, while the private key is kept secret, ensuring secure communication.

• Key Rotation: A security practice of periodically changing encryption keys to minimize the risk of unauthorized access or data breaches. It ensures that compromised keys are no longer valid.

• Keystore: A secure file where encryption keys, certificates, and private keys are stored. It’s used to manage keys for applications to ensure secure communication or encryption.

• Key-Value Store: A type of NoSQL database where data is stored as key-value pairs. It is highly scalable and often used for caching, session management, or real-time data retrieval.

• Kibana: A data visualization tool that works with Elasticsearch to help visualize and analyze large volumes of data. It’s often used for monitoring and operational intelligence.

• Kill Command: A command used in Unix-like operating systems to terminate processes. It can be used with specific process IDs (PIDs) to stop or terminate processes that are running in the background.

• Kill Switch: A mechanism used in software or hardware that can shut down a program or device immediately in case of security risks or malfunctions.

• Kismet: An open-source tool used for detecting wireless networks (Wi-Fi) and capturing network traffic. It’s often used for network security monitoring or wireless penetration testing.

• KMS (Key Management Service): A managed service that allows users to create, control, and manage encryption keys used to encrypt data across cloud environments or systems.

• Knapsack Problem: A classic problem in computer science and optimization, where the goal is to select items with given weights and values to maximize value within a weight limit. It has various applications in algorithms and resource allocation.

• Knowledge Base: A centralized repository of information, often used in customer service or IT support, to store articles, tutorials, FAQs, and documentation for users or employees.

• Knowledge Graph: A structure that represents knowledge as a network of entities and their relationships. Google and other platforms use knowledge graphs to provide more accurate search results.

• Kotlin: A modern, statically typed programming language that runs on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). It’s widely used for Android app development and is known for its concise syntax and interoperability with Java.

• Kubernetes: An open-source platform used to automate the deployment, scaling, and management of containerized applications. It helps manage clusters of nodes and ensures applications run consistently across various environments.

• Kubernetes Pod: The smallest and simplest unit in Kubernetes. A pod represents a group of one or more containers with shared storage/network and a specification for how to run the containers.

• Kubernetes Service: A Kubernetes abstraction that defines a logical set of pods and a policy by which to access them. It enables load balancing and service discovery for applications running on Kubernetes.

• KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine): A virtualization module in the Linux kernel that allows the operating system to function as a hypervisor, enabling the running of multiple virtual machines (VMs).

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• LAMP Stack: A popular web development stack that includes Linux, Apache (web server), MySQL (database), and PHP (programming language). It's used to build dynamic websites and web applications.

• LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects computers within a small geographical area, such as a home, office, or campus, allowing them to share resources like files or printers.

• Latency: The delay between a user's action and the system's response. In networking, it refers to the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination. Lower latency means faster response times.

• Latency Optimization: Techniques used to reduce delays in network communication or data processing, important in areas like gaming, video streaming, and real-time analytics.

• Latency Sensitivity: Refers to how sensitive an application is to delays in processing or network communication. Applications like online gaming and VoIP are highly latency-sensitive.

• LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): A protocol used to access and manage directory services over an IP network. LDAP is commonly used for managing user credentials and authentication.

• Least Privilege: A security principle that restricts users and systems to only the permissions necessary to perform their tasks, reducing the potential impact of a security breach.

• Legacy System: An outdated computing system or technology that is still in use, often because it’s critical to the organization’s operations, despite being difficult to maintain or upgrade.

• Library: A collection of pre-written code that developers can use to solve common problems or add functionality to their applications without rewriting code from scratch.

• Lightweight Process: A type of process that shares some resources (like memory) with other processes, making it faster to create and manage. Threads are often considered lightweight processes.

• Link Aggregation: The process of combining multiple network connections to increase bandwidth or provide redundancy. It is often used in data centers and high-traffic environments.

• Linting: The process of running a program (called a linter) that checks for potential errors, bugs, or stylistic inconsistencies in code. It helps ensure code quality and maintainability.

• Linux: A popular open-source operating system kernel that forms the foundation of various distributions (distros) like Ubuntu, CentOS, and Debian. It's widely used in servers, cloud environments, and embedded systems.

• Linux Distribution (Distro): A version of Linux that includes the kernel and a set of software packages. Popular Linux distros include Ubuntu, Fedora, and Red Hat.

• LLM (Large Language Model): A type of artificial intelligence model, like OpenAI's GPT, trained on large amounts of text data to understand and generate human-like language.

• Load Balancer: A tool or device that distributes network or application traffic across multiple servers to ensure no single server becomes overwhelmed. It improves performance, redundancy, and availability.

• Load Balancing Algorithm: A method used by load balancers to distribute traffic across servers. Common algorithms include round-robin, least connections, and IP hash.

• Load Factor: In data structures like hash tables, the load factor represents the ratio of elements to the number of available slots. It’s used to determine when the structure should be resized.

• Load Shedding: A technique used in distributed systems to reduce system load by temporarily rejecting or delaying requests when the system is under high demand, preventing total system failure.

• Load Testing: The process of testing how an application performs under heavy loads (i.e., a large number of users or high data volume). It helps identify performance bottlenecks.

• Load Time: The time it takes for a web page or application to load and become fully operational. Reducing load time is crucial for improving user experience.

• Log4j: A popular Java-based logging utility used in many applications for tracking activity. It became widely known after the 2021 security vulnerability incident ("Log4Shell").

• Logarithmic Scale: A scale used in graphs and algorithms where each unit of increase represents a tenfold (or other) increase. It’s used to handle large ranges of data or performance metrics.

• Logging: The process of recording events, messages, or data generated by applications or systems, often used for debugging, monitoring, and security purposes.

• Logical lure: An online ad or social media platform that looks too good to be true so users will click the ad to find out more. It’s a setup so an attacker can infect their computer with malware to access login credentials, financial information, and other valuable data. (See Social Engineering and Baiting.)

• Logic Gate: A fundamental building block in digital circuits that performs basic logical functions (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) on binary input signals.

• LogsFiles: A record that captures access, changes, error messages, and other basic information. Most software and systems generate audit logs. Audit logs capture log file events showing who did what and how the system behaved. (See Digital accounting.)

• Long Polling: A web communication technique where the server holds a client request open until new data becomes available, then sends a response. It’s used for real-time updates in web applications.

• Loopback: A network feature used to send traffic to and from the same device. Loopback addresses (e.g., 127.0.0.1) are commonly used for testing and development purposes.

• Lossy Compression: A method of data compression where some data is lost during the process to reduce file size. It’s commonly used in media formats like JPEG and MP3, where exact data recovery isn’t necessary.

• Low-Code Development: A software development approach that requires little to no coding to build applications. It uses visual tools and pre-built components to speed up development.

• LXC (Linux Containers): A lightweight virtualization technology for running multiple isolated Linux systems (containers) on a single host, without the overhead of full virtual machines.

M

• Machine Code: The lowest-level programming language, consisting of binary instructions that the computer's CPU can directly execute. It is generated from higher-level languages during compilation.

• Machine Learning (ML): A subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that allows systems to learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed automatically. It’s used in applications like image recognition, recommendation systems, and natural language processing.

• Macro viruses: Bits of code that affect Microsoft Office files via the macros they use to automate tasks.

• Mainframe: A powerful and highly reliable computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, including bulk data processing and enterprise resource management.

• Malicious websites: Websites that mimic real websites to trick users into entering login or payment data or to install malware that gathers personal information or takes over a device. Malicious website pages often have typos or designs that don’t match the legitimate site they are mimicking. Their URLs might use a zero instead of an “O” or a capital “i” instead of a lowercase “L”.

• Malware: A general term for software designed to compromise computer systems. Malware can cause system slowdowns, odd requests, browser misdirection, and popup ads. It can also steal data, record everything you do with or near your device, spam your contacts with infected links, and connect your computer to a network of hijacked computers that are remotely controlled (known as a botnet).

• Man-in-the-middle attack (logical): In a logical man-in-the-middle attack, the attacker sends emails or texts with fake links that direct victims to sites that steal their data and install malware. If a fake email warns about a bank account problem, the victim might click the link and try to log in. This gives the attacker control of their bank account and installs malware on the victim’s computer.

• Man-in-the-middle attack (physical): In a physical man-in-the-middle attack, the attacker is physically near the victim, like the same public wifi network or a network they set up themselves as a trap. The attacker sniffs the unencrypted network traffic to access everything the victim is doing online so they can steal information.

• Man Page (Manual Page): A form of software documentation available in Unix-like operating systems. Man pages provide information about commands, system calls, configuration files, and more.

• MapReduce: A programming model used for processing and generating large datasets, primarily in distributed computing environments. It consists of two main functions: Map (processes data) and Reduce (aggregates results).

• Markup Language: A type of language used to annotate or format text within a document. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and XML (Extensible Markup Language) are examples of markup languages used in web development.

• Mashup: A web application that combines data, content, or functionality from multiple sources to create a new service. For example, a map service that overlays social media data is a mashup.

• MD5 (Message Digest Algorithm 5): A widely used cryptographic hash function that produces a 128-bit hash value. It was once popular for verifying data integrity but is now considered insecure due to vulnerabilities to collision attacks.

• Meaningful reporting: The presentation of analyzed information in ways that help people further analyze and interpret. Reporting tools use captured and correlated data to provide charts, keyword searches, and graphs that help companies achieve business insights. (See Data correlation and Data capture.)

• Memory Leak: A situation in software development where a program consumes memory but fails to release it after it’s no longer needed, leading to performance degradation or system crashes.

• Memory Management: The process of efficiently allocating, using, and freeing memory in a computer system. Operating systems and applications rely on memory management to optimize performance and prevent issues like fragmentation.

• Memory Paging: A memory management scheme that eliminates the need for contiguous allocation of physical memory by dividing memory into fixed-size pages and mapping them to available physical memory.

• Mesh Network: A network topology where each node connects to multiple other nodes, allowing data to travel along multiple paths. This setup provides redundancy and improves network reliability, often used in wireless networks.

• Message Queue: A communication method used in distributed systems where messages are sent between different parts of a system through a queue, allowing asynchronous communication and decoupling of components.

• Metadata: Data that provides information about other data. It’s often used to describe the structure, content, or context of data, such as file type, size, creation date, and author.

• Microcontroller: A small computer on a single integrated circuit, typically used in embedded systems to control devices such as sensors, actuators, and machines. Commonly used in IoT devices.

• Microservices: An architectural style that structures an application as a collection of loosely coupled, independently deployable services. Each service is responsible for a specific functionality, making the system easier to scale and maintain.

• Middleware: Software that acts as a bridge between different applications or systems, often enabling communication and data management. Middleware is commonly used in distributed systems and cloud computing.

• Middleware as a Service (MWaaS): A cloud service model that provides middleware capabilities (such as application integration, messaging, or database management) as a managed service.

• MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions): A standard that extends the format of email to support text in character sets other than ASCII, as well as attachments like images, audio, and video files.

• Minification: The process of reducing the size of a file (typically CSS or JavaScript) by removing unnecessary characters, such as white spaces and comments, to improve load times for web applications.

• Mirroring: A data redundancy technique that involves duplicating data across multiple storage devices or systems to ensure availability in case one device fails.

• MITM (Man-in-the-Middle Attack): A type of cyberattack where a malicious actor intercepts communication between two parties without their knowledge, potentially altering the data or stealing sensitive information.

• Mobile-First Design: A web design strategy that prioritizes the user experience on mobile devices by designing websites for smaller screens first, then scaling up to larger screens.

• Mockup: A prototype or static design of a website or application, typically used in the design phase to demonstrate layout, functionality, or aesthetics before actual development begins.

• Modem: Short for modulator-demodulator, a modem is a device that converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines or cable, and vice versa.

• Modular Programming: A programming approach that breaks down a program into smaller, self-contained units (modules) that can be developed, tested, and maintained independently.

• MongoDB: A popular NoSQL database that stores data in a flexible, JSON-like format called BSON (Binary JSON). It’s widely used for applications that require high scalability and performance.

• Monolithic Architecture: A traditional software architecture where all components of an application are tightly integrated and managed as a single unit. In contrast, microservices architecture breaks the application into smaller, independent services.

• Mounting: The process of making a storage device (like a hard drive or USB stick) accessible to an operating system by associating it with a directory or drive letter.

• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): A security method that requires multiple forms of verification before granting access to a system or account. It often combines something the user knows (password), something they have (token), and something they are (biometrics).

• Multiplexing: A technique used in communications to combine multiple signals into one signal for transmission over a single medium, such as combining multiple telephone calls into a single channel.

• Multithreading: A technique that allows multiple threads (small units of a process) to execute simultaneously within a single process. It’s used to improve performance, especially in multi-core processors.

• Mutex (Mutual Exclusion): A synchronization primitive used in multithreading to prevent multiple threads from accessing shared resources concurrently. It ensures that only one thread can access a critical section of code at a time.

• MVC (Model-View-Controller): A design pattern used in software development that separates an application into three interconnected components: the Model (data), the View (UI), and the Controller (business logic). It improves code organization and modularity.

N

• Nagios: An open-source monitoring tool used to monitor systems, networks, and infrastructure. It provides alerts when critical services or systems experience issues or go down.

• Namespace: A container that holds a set of identifiers or symbols, ensuring that they are unique within the context. It helps in organizing code and preventing name conflicts in programming and systems.

• Namespace (Docker): In Docker and containerization, a namespace is a mechanism that provides isolation for processes, networking, and file systems. Each container has its namespace, preventing conflicts with other containers.

• Namespace Pollution: A situation in programming where too many identifiers (variable or function names) are declared in a shared namespace, increasing the risk of naming conflicts and bugs.

• Nano (Text Editor): A lightweight, user-friendly text editor used in command-line environments, especially in Unix-based systems like Linux. It's a simpler alternative to more complex editors like Vim or Emacs.

• NAS (Network Attached Storage): A dedicated file storage device that provides data access to multiple clients over a network. It’s commonly used in businesses and homes for centralized file storage and sharing.

• NAT (Network Address Translation): A method used in routers to map multiple private IP addresses to a single public IP address, allowing multiple devices on a local network to share a single IP when connecting to the internet.

• Near field communication (NFC): Wireless technology that transfers data across devices with a tap or a bump. It’s usually used for payments or sharing contacts. It has a much shorter range than Bluetooth and has zero security protections aside from its limited range.

• Nested Function: In programming, a function that is defined within another function. Nested functions can access variables of their enclosing function, and they are often used for modularizing code.

• Net Neutrality: A principle that all internet traffic should be treated equally, without discriminating against or favoring certain users, content, or applications.

• Network: A group of interconnected devices (computers, servers, smartphones, etc.) that communicate with each other to share resources, data, and services.

• Network Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer across a network connection. Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps) and affects the speed of data communication.

• Network Latency: The delay in communication between two devices over a network, typically measured in milliseconds. Reducing latency is crucial for real-time applications like gaming and video conferencing.

• Network Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that allow devices in a network to communicate. Common protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.

• Network Security: A broad term encompassing strategies, practices, and technologies to protect the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of data transmitted across networks.

• Network Topology: The arrangement or structure of various elements (links, nodes) in a computer network. Common topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh.

• Neural Network: A machine learning model inspired by the structure of the human brain, composed of layers of interconnected nodes (neurons). Neural networks are used for tasks like image recognition, speech processing, and language translation.

• Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW): An advanced firewall that provides additional features beyond traditional firewalls, such as intrusion prevention, application awareness, and deep packet inspection.

• Nginx: A high-performance web server and reverse proxy server that also functions as a load balancer, HTTP cache, and mail proxy server. It's popular for handling large-scale web traffic.

• NIC (Network Interface Card): A hardware component that connects a computer or other device to a network. It can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).

• NLP (Natural Language Processing): A field of AI focused on enabling machines to understand, interpret, and generate human language. It powers applications like chatbots, voice assistants, and language translation.

• Nmap (Network Mapper): A popular open-source tool used for network discovery and security auditing. Nmap can be used to scan large networks and identify connected devices, open ports, and services.

• Node: A device or a data point in a larger network or system. In computer networks, a node can be a computer, router, or switch. In blockchain, a node refers to a computer participating in the blockchain network.

• Node.js: A runtime environment that allows developers to execute JavaScript code on the server side, outside of a web browser. It's used for building scalable, real-time applications.

• Non-Blocking I/O: An input/output processing method that allows a program to continue execution without waiting for I/O operations to complete. It is commonly used in asynchronous programming to improve performance.

• Nonce: A random or unique number used only once in cryptographic communication to prevent replay attacks. It is often used in authentication protocols to ensure the integrity of transmitted data.

• Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA): A legal contract between parties that outlines confidentiality agreements, often used in business and tech settings to protect sensitive information from being disclosed.

• Non-Linear Editing (NLE): A method used in video and audio editing where the material can be accessed and edited in any order, without altering the original media.

• Non-Repudiation: A security concept that ensures that someone cannot deny the authenticity of their signature or the sending of a message. It's crucial for verifying the integrity and origin of data.

• Non-repudiation: When you can't deny being in a specific location. It guarantees that a message sent between two parties is genuine. Non-repudiation examples include video, biometrics, digital signature, and digital receipt. (See Non-repudiation.)

• Non-volatile Memory: A type of memory that preserves data even when the power is turned off, such as hard drives, SSDs, and NVRAM.

• Normalization: A process in database design that organizes data to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. It involves dividing large tables into smaller, more manageable ones while maintaining relationships between them.

• NoSQL: A category of database management systems that do not use traditional relational database models. NoSQL databases, like MongoDB and Cassandra, are designed for distributed data storage and high scalability.

• Null: A special marker used in databases and programming to indicate the absence of a value. Null is different from zero or an empty string, as it represents "no data" or "unknown."

• Null Pointer: In programming, a pointer that does not point to any memory location or object. Dereferencing a null pointer can lead to program crashes or undefined behavior.

• NVRAM (Non-Volatile Random Access Memory): A type of memory that retains data even after the system is powered off. It's used in systems that require persistence of data across reboots, like routers and embedded devices.

O

• OAuth (Open Authorization): A protocol that allows users to grant third-party websites or applications limited access to their resources without revealing their passwords. It's commonly used for logins via platforms like Google or Facebook.

• OAuth 2.0: The newer version of the OAuth protocol, providing more secure and user-friendly ways to handle authentication and authorization, especially for API-based applications.

• OAuth Token: A token issued during OAuth authorization that gives applications access to user resources for a specified time without needing to exchange passwords.

• Obfuscation: The practice of deliberately making source code, data, or algorithms difficult to understand to protect against reverse engineering, tampering, or unauthorized access.

• Object: In object-oriented programming, an object is a self-contained component that includes properties (attributes) and methods (functions) to interact with data.

• Object Detection: A computer vision technique that identifies and classifies objects within images or videos. It is widely used in security, automation, and augmented reality.

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects," which are instances of classes. OOP emphasizes encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism, helping structure programs around reusable code.

• Object Storage: A data storage architecture where data is stored as objects rather than files or blocks. This is commonly used in cloud storage systems like Amazon S3.

• Observability: The practice of collecting, analyzing, and acting on data from a system to gain insights into its state and behavior, enabling faster identification and resolution of issues.

• Offloading: The process of transferring specific tasks or operations from one system component to another to improve performance. For example, network offloading shifts packet processing from the CPU to a specialized network card.

• Off-the-Shelf Software: Pre-packaged software solutions that are available for the general public, designed to cater to a broad range of users and industries, such as Microsoft Office or Adobe Photoshop.

• On-Demand Computing: A model in cloud computing where resources such as servers, storage, and applications are provided to users only when needed, allowing for flexible scaling and cost savings.

• One-Time Password (OTP): A password that is valid for only one login session or transaction, often used as part of multi-factor authentication for enhanced security.

• On-Premises: Refers to software or hardware that is installed and runs locally on a company’s infrastructure, as opposed to being hosted on the cloud.

• Opcode (Operation Code): A portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. It's used in the execution of programs at the processor level.

• OpenAPI: A specification for building APIs (Application Programming Interfaces). It provides a standard way to describe RESTful APIs for web services, making it easier to automate tasks and build integrations.

• OpenGL (Open Graphics Library): A cross-language, cross-platform API used for rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. It is widely used in video games and other high-performance graphics applications.

• OpenID: An authentication protocol that allows users to sign in to multiple websites using a single identity, making it easier to manage user credentials.

• OpenID Connect (OIDC): An identity layer built on top of the OAuth 2.0 protocol. It allows third-party applications to verify the identity of users and obtain basic profile information.

• Open network: Free, unencrypted networks that do not require a password to log on. Airports, coffee shops, hotels, and even fast-food restaurants offer their guests access to open networks. Open network providers may track what you do and sell your data to advertisers.

• Open Source: Refers to software whose source code is freely available for anyone to view, modify, and distribute. Popular open-source projects include Linux, Firefox, and Apache.

• OpenSSL: A widely used open-source software library for applications that secure communications over computer networks. It is used for implementing the SSL and TLS protocols.

• OpenStack: An open-source cloud computing platform used to manage large networks of virtual machines and other resources in private and public clouds.

• Operating System (OS): The software that manages hardware resources and provides services for computer programs. Common operating systems include Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS.

• Operator: In programming, operators are symbols or keywords that tell the compiler or interpreter to perform a specific operation on variables or values. Common examples include + (addition), == (equality), and && (logical AND).

• Optical Character Recognition (OCR): A technology that converts different types of documents, such as scanned paper documents, PDFs, or images, into editable and searchable data by recognizing text.

• Optical Drive: A hardware device that uses laser light to read and write data on optical discs such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.

• Optical Fiber: A high-speed communication medium that transmits data as light pulses through glass or plastic fibers, widely used in telecommunications for high bandwidth and long-distance data transmission.

• Optimization: In programming and computing, optimization refers to the process of improving the efficiency of code, systems, or algorithms to make them run faster, use fewer resources, or achieve better performance.

• Orchestration: In cloud computing, orchestration refers to the automated coordination and management of complex IT systems and services. Tools like Kubernetes are used for container orchestration.

• Original equipment manufacturer (OEM): The original maker of a hardware device. OEMs provide drivers and firmware updates on their websites.

• ORM (Object-Relational Mapping): A technique used in software development to map data between relational databases and object-oriented languages. Examples of ORM tools include Hibernate for Java and SQLAlchemy for Python.

• OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection): A conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application) to aid interoperability between products.

• Outbound Traffic: Data that is transmitted from a device, server, or network to an external system or the internet. This is the opposite of inbound traffic, which refers to data received.

• Output: Any data that is generated by a computer system or application, which can be displayed on a screen, printed on paper, or stored as files. Outputs can be tangible or intangible results of computing processes.

• Overclocking: The process of increasing the clock speed of a computer's processor or graphics card beyond the manufacturer's specified rate to improve performance, often at the cost of higher power consumption and heat.

• Overfitting: In machine learning, overfitting occurs when a model learns the details and noise in the training data to such an extent that it negatively impacts performance on new, unseen data.

P

• PaaS (Platform as a Service): A cloud computing model that provides a platform allowing developers to build, deploy, and manage applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure. Examples include Heroku and Google App Engine.

• Packet: A unit of data transmitted over a network. Packets are formatted units that contain both the payload (the actual data being sent) and control information (such as source and destination addresses).

• Packet Switching: A method of data transmission where data is broken into packets that are sent independently over the network and reassembled at the destination, enhancing efficiency and reliability.

• Parsing: The process of analyzing a string of symbols, either in natural language or computer languages, to convert it into a format that can be understood and processed by a program.

• Password: A secret word or phrase used to authenticate a user’s identity when accessing a system, application, or network. Strong passwords are crucial for security and often require a mix of letters, numbers, and symbols.

• Patch: A software update designed to fix vulnerabilities, improve functionality, or enhance performance. Patches are essential for maintaining software security and reliability.

• Patch Management: The process of managing updates and patches for software applications and systems, ensuring they are applied promptly to minimize security vulnerabilities and maintain performance.

• Patch Tuesday: A term used to refer to the second Tuesday of each month when Microsoft releases updates and patches for its software products, helping maintain security and performance.

• Pattern Recognition: The ability of a computer system to recognize patterns and regularities in data, a key component of machine learning and artificial intelligence.

• Payload: In computing and networking, the payload refers to the actual data being carried by a packet, as opposed to the metadata that describes the packet itself.

• Penetration Testing: A security testing method where testers simulate cyber attacks on systems or applications to identify vulnerabilities that could be exploited by malicious actors.

• Performance Tuning: The practice of optimizing a system's performance by adjusting its configuration and settings to enhance speed and efficiency. This can involve database optimization, code profiling, and resource allocation.

• Peripheral: An external device that connects to a computer, enhancing its functionality. Common peripherals include keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners.

• Persistence: In programming and data management, persistence refers to the characteristic of data that outlives the execution of the program that created it, typically through storage in databases or files.

• Personal Area Network (PAN): A small network, typically used for connecting devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops within a short range, often using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.

• Phablet: A mobile device that combines the features of a smartphone and a tablet, typically with a screen size between 5 and 7 inches.

• Phishing: A cyber attack where attackers impersonate legitimate entities to trick individuals into providing sensitive information, such as passwords or credit card numbers, typically through deceptive emails or websites.

• Physical Security: Measures taken to protect physical assets (hardware, networks, and data) from physical threats such as theft, vandalism, and natural disasters. This includes access control, surveillance, and environmental controls.

• Pixel: The smallest unit of a digital image or display that can be individually controlled. Pixels combine to form images on screens, with higher pixel counts generally leading to better image quality.

• Platform: A foundational technology or environment on which software applications are built and run. Examples include operating systems (Windows, macOS) and cloud platforms (AWS, Azure).

• Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS): A cloud computing model that provides a platform allowing developers to build, deploy, and manage applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure.

• Plugin: A software add-on that extends the functionality of an existing application. Plugins are common in web browsers and content management systems like WordPress.

• Plug-in: A software component that adds specific features or functionalities to an existing computer program, enhancing its capabilities without altering its core structure. Common in web browsers and digital audio workstations.

• PowerShell: A task automation and configuration management framework from Microsoft, consisting of a command-line shell and associated scripting language used to manage and automate system tasks.

• Power User: An individual who possesses advanced computer skills and utilizes technology in a more sophisticated way than the average user, often leveraging specialized software and hardware capabilities.

• Printer Driver: Software that allows a computer to communicate with a printer, translating data from the computer into a format that the printer can understand.

• Privacy: The right and expectation of individuals to control their personal information and how it is collected, used, and shared. Data privacy is a critical concern in the digital age, leading to regulations like GDPR.

• Private Cloud: A cloud computing model that provides dedicated resources to a single organization, enhancing security and control over data while still offering the benefits of cloud services.

• Process: A program that is currently executing in a computer system. Processes have their own memory space and system resources, allowing multiple processes to run concurrently.

• Process Automation: The use of technology to perform tasks with minimal human intervention, improving efficiency and accuracy in business processes. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a common approach.

• Process Flow: A graphical representation of the sequence of steps in a business process or workflow, helping visualize and optimize operations.

• Programming Language: A formal language consisting of a set of instructions that can be used to produce various kinds of output, including software applications and algorithms. Examples include Java, C++, and Ruby.

• Progressive Web App (PWA): A type of web application that utilizes modern web capabilities to deliver a user experience similar to native apps, including offline access and push notifications.

• Project Management: The discipline of planning, executing, and monitoring projects to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria within a defined timeline and budget. Tools like Trello and Jira are often used.

• Protocol: A set of rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Common protocols include HTTP (for web traffic), FTP (for file transfers), and TCP/IP (the foundational protocol for the internet).

• Proxy Server: A server that acts as an intermediary between a client and another server, often used to improve security, control internet usage, or cache data to improve load times.

• Pseudocode: A high-level description of an algorithm that uses the structure of programming languages but is not written in any specific programming language. It helps programmers plan and visualize code logic.

• Public Domain: Creative works or inventions that are free for use by anyone without copyright restrictions. Works in the public domain can be used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without permission.

• Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): A framework that manages digital keys and certificates to secure communications and authenticate users in a network. PKI is essential for implementing encryption protocols like SSL/TLS.

• Python: A high-level, interpreted programming language known for its readability and versatility. Python is widely used in web development, data science, artificial intelligence, and more.

Q

• QoS (Quality of Service): A networking term that refers to the ability to prioritize certain types of traffic or data to ensure better performance for critical applications or services. QoS is commonly used in VoIP (Voice over IP) and video streaming.

• Quantization: In digital signal processing, quantization refers to the process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set. It’s used in compressing audio, video, and image files, like MP3 or JPEG formats.

• Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum mechanics principles to perform calculations at exponentially faster rates than classical computers. Quantum bits (qubits) are the fundamental units in quantum computing.

• Quasi-Static: A term used in computer science and electronics to describe systems or processes that change slowly enough that they can be considered to be in a constant state at any given moment in time.

• Qubit: The basic unit of quantum information in quantum computing. Unlike a classical bit, which can be 0 or 1, a qubit can represent both 0 and 1 simultaneously due to the principles of superposition and entanglement.

• Query: A request for information or data from a database. A query is typically written in SQL (Structured Query Language) to retrieve or manipulate data in relational databases.

• Query Language: A computer language used to make queries in databases and information systems. SQL is the most common example, but other query languages exist, such as GraphQL for APIs.

• Queue: A data structure used in programming that operates on a first-in, first-out (FIFO) basis. Elements are added to the end of the queue and removed from the front, commonly used in task scheduling and data processing.

• Queue Management System: A system designed to manage customer flow in a service environment by organizing queues and distributing workload efficiently. These systems are often used in banks, hospitals, and call centers.

• Quick Response (QR) Code: A type of matrix barcode that can be scanned with a smartphone or other device to quickly access information, such as a website URL or contact information.

• Quicksort: A popular and efficient sorting algorithm that uses a divide-and-conquer strategy to sort elements in an array or list. It is often used due to its relatively fast performance, especially with large datasets.

• QuickTime: A multimedia framework developed by Apple for handling video, audio, and interactive media, especially in Mac OS systems. It supports various formats, including .mov files.

• Quorum: In distributed computing and consensus algorithms, quorum refers to the minimum number of members or nodes required to agree on a transaction or change in a network, ensuring fault tolerance and consistency.

• Quota: A limit set on the amount of data or resources that a user or system can consume. Common in cloud storage, email services, or networking, quotas prevent overuse of resources.

• QWERTY: Refers to the standard keyboard layout used in most English-speaking countries, named after the first six letters on the top row of the keyboard.

R

• Race Condition: A situation in multi-threaded programming where two or more threads attempt to modify shared data at the same time, leading to unpredictable results. Preventing race conditions typically involves synchronization techniques.

• Rainbow attacks: A type of password cracking attack where hackers use words from an original password hash to generate all other possible passwords.

• RAM (Random Access Memory): A type of computer memory that stores data temporarily, allowing programs to access it quickly while running. More RAM typically allows a computer to handle more tasks simultaneously.

• Ransomware: Software that locks a system, encrypts its files, and displays a ransom demand. To get the encryption key, you must pay the ransom. Or you can regain access by doing a full system restore from a backup.

• React: A popular JavaScript library for building user interfaces, particularly for single-page applications. React allows developers to create reusable UI components and efficiently update web pages.

• Record: In databases, a record is a single, complete set of fields, such as a row in a relational database. Each field in the record holds a specific piece of data, like name, date of birth, or ID.

• Red Team: In cybersecurity, a red team simulates an attacker attempting to break into an organization's systems to test its defenses. Red teaming helps improve security by finding vulnerabilities before they can be exploited.

• Redundancy: In computing and networking, redundancy refers to the duplication of critical components or functions of a system to increase reliability and prevent data loss or downtime in case of failure.

• Regex (Regular Expression): A sequence of characters that defines a search pattern. Regular expressions are commonly used in programming for searching, replacing, and validating text.

• Registry: A central database in Windows operating systems where configuration settings and options for the OS and installed programs are stored. Modifying the registry can impact system behavior and performance.

• Regression Testing: A type of software testing performed to ensure that recent code changes have not adversely affected existing features or functionality. It helps maintain software stability during updates.

• Relational Database: A database structured to recognize relationships between stored items of information. SQL databases like MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle are examples of relational databases.

• Relational database management system (RDBMS): A database that records user access and data changes. RDBMS is safer than a spreadsheet program.

• Remote Access: The ability to access a computer or network from a remote location, often using tools like VPNs, RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol), or SSH (Secure Shell).

• Rendering: The process of generating a visual image from a model by means of a software program. In web development, rendering refers to the process by which a browser displays a web page.

• Replay attack: A type of man-in-the-middle attack which intercepts and retransmits data. Replay attacks involve “trusted entities” and require an “access token”. Replay attacks are also known as repeat or playback attacks.

• Replica: In databases and distributed systems, a replica is a copy of a data set or system used to improve availability and fault tolerance by distributing the load across multiple servers.

• Replicator: In cloud computing and databases, a replicator duplicates data across multiple servers or databases to ensure consistency and availability in distributed systems.

• Repository: A centralized place where data, code, or files are stored and managed. In software development, a repository (like GitHub or GitLab) is used to track versions of code.

• Resolution: The amount of detail an image holds, typically measured in pixels for digital images. Higher resolution means more detail and clarity.

• Responsive Design: An approach to web design that ensures web pages render well on various devices, including desktops, tablets, and smartphones, by using flexible layouts and media queries.

• REST (Representational State Transfer): A software architectural style used for creating web services, where resources are represented by URLs and accessed using HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE.

• RESTful API: An API (Application Programming Interface) that follows the principles of REST architecture, allowing for easy communication between systems using standard HTTP methods.

• Reverse Engineering: The process of analyzing a device, software, or system to understand its structure, function, or operation, often to recreate or improve upon the technology.

• Role-based access control (RBAC): Access control method that follows a company’s org chart. Different customer and employee roles are set up as groups on a network, and then those groups are granted certain permissions. When a new user joins the network, they are assigned to the group that fits their role. They will have the lowest level of permissions they need to do their job. (See Access control and ROLP.)

• Rollback: The process of reverting a system, database, or application to a previous state, usually after an update or change has caused issues or problems.

• Root Access: Administrative access to a computer system or network, allowing a user to make significant changes, such as modifying system files or installing software. In Linux, root access refers to the superuser privileges.

• Root certificate store: (See CA and SSL certificates.)

• Rooting: When users remove device restrictions on Android phones so they can make changes and install non-approved apps. This adds functionality but also adds vulnerability. It is harder to root newer model phones, and there is less reason for it with updated features and app selections. (See Jailbreaking.)

• Rootkit: A type of malicious software designed to hide the existence of certain processes or programs from normal detection methods. Rootkits allow unauthorized users to gain root or administrator access to a system.

• Round Robin: A method of distributing tasks or resources evenly across a set of entities, commonly used in load balancing, where incoming network requests are distributed across servers in a round-robin fashion.

• Router: A network device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers are essential for connecting devices to the internet or to other networks.

• Router Firmware: The software that operates a router, controlling its functions and features. Router firmware updates can improve performance, fix bugs, and enhance security.

• Ruby: A high-level, general-purpose programming language known for its simplicity and productivity. It is often used in web development, especially with the Ruby on Rails framework.

• Ruby on Rails (RoR): A popular web application framework written in Ruby that helps developers build web applications quickly and efficiently by providing default structures for databases, web pages, and services.

• Rule of least privilege (ROLP): Access control method where access is only granted to resources that a user needs to fulfill their role. (See RBAC and Access control.)

• Runtime: Refers to the period when a program is running, as opposed to the time when it is being compiled or written. Runtime environments like the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) provide services for running applications.

S

• SaaS (Software as a Service): A cloud-based software delivery model where users access software applications over the internet rather than installing them locally. Examples include Gmail, Microsoft 365, and Salesforce.

• Sandbox: An isolated environment used to test new code or applications without affecting the rest of a system. Sandboxing is a security measure to prevent untested code from causing harm.

• Scalability: The ability of a system, network, or process to handle increased load or to be expanded to accommodate growth without performance loss.

• Scraping (Web Scraping): The technique of extracting large amounts of data from websites, often by writing bots or programs to automate the process. Web scraping is used for data analysis, research, and business intelligence.

• Script: A program or sequence of instructions that is interpreted or executed by another program rather than by the computer’s processor directly. Scripts automate tasks and are commonly used in web development.

• Scripting Language: A programming language used for writing scripts, which automate tasks. Common scripting languages include JavaScript, Python, and PHP.

• Scrum: An agile framework for managing complex projects, particularly in software development. Scrum emphasizes iterative development, teamwork, and continuous improvement.

• SDK (Software Development Kit): A collection of tools, libraries, and documentation that allows developers to create applications for specific platforms, operating systems, or devices.

• Search engine algorithms: Algorithms used by search engines that detect harmful sites. Browsers use those results to warn users that a site may contain malware, malicious code, phishing scams, or be hacked in some other way. If your browser tells you a site is unsafe, avoid that site.

• Secure boot: A feature of UEFI. It confirms an OS manufacturer’s digital signature, which prevents malware from taking control during boot-up. (See Firmware and UFEI.)

• Secure sockets layer certificates (SSL certificates): Certificate that authenticates a website’s identity and enables an encrypted connection between a web server and a browser. SSL certificates come from CAs. When you browse a website using HTTPS, you’re trusting the CA to validate the information submitted by the business who has requested an SSL certificate. When you see a lock icon in the address bar of a URL you visited, then you know that website is using HTTPS. Also called ‘security certificate’ and ‘trust seal’. (See CA and HTTPS websites.)

• Security associations (SA): Defines which types of hashing and encryption are used (See IPsec.)

• Security certificate: (See SSL certificate.)

• Security zones: A feature of older browsers. They block or allow websites and confine them to different zones such as the local network, Internet, or intranet. For each zone you could apply different security levels. For example, medium, high, or custom. Security zones can also be configured to allow ActiveX and Java for added website interactivity or functionality, but this introduces risk. Modern browsers do not use Zones. Older web apps may require you to enable ActiveX in order to run properly.

• Server: A computer or system that provides resources, data, or services to other computers (clients) over a network. Servers host applications, websites, and databases.

• Serverless Computing: A cloud computing model in which developers build and run applications without managing servers. The cloud provider handles infrastructure, scaling, and resource management, charging based on usage.

• Session hijacking: When an attacker intercepts and hijacks your connection. For example, they can take over a connection while you’re logged in to your bank and transfer funds to an outside account.

• Shoulder surfing: When an attacker sits strategically in public areas to try to see usernames and passwords, bank account pins, and other essential information. They literally watch what you enter on your screen and look at your finger's keystrokes, too. Shoulder surfing is common in busy public places.

• Single sign-on (SSO): Authentication method that lets you log in to multiple applications and platforms with one login.

• Smart card authentication: User authentication using a card that has a security chip. The smart card has a public/private key pair. It presents a digital certificate (including the public key) to the server it’s trying to access. If the server trusts the CA that issued the digital certificate, it will use the public key to send an encrypted request. Only the smart card’s private key can decrypt the request, which means only the smart card owner can send the correct response. (See PKI and digital certificate.)

• Smart Contract: A self-executing contract with the terms written directly into code, typically on blockchain platforms like Ethereum. Smart contracts automatically enforce agreements without the need for intermediaries.

• Snapshot: A read-only copy of the state of a system, database, or virtual machine at a particular point in time. Snapshots are used for backups, rollback, or recovery.

• Snooping: Cyberattack that intercepts data between devices. Snooping can reveal logins, credit card numbers, intellectual property, and more. Snooping attack types include: eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle, and replay. Some hackers can even use a computer monitor’s electromagnetic fields to reconstruct what it displays. Snooping is common on open, unsecured networks and can be difficult to trace.

• Social Engineering: A manipulation technique used by hackers to trick individuals into giving up confidential information, such as passwords or financial data, through deceptive interactions. Often times, the sense of fear or urgency is used to further the process along. Social engineering is a trap. It relies on human error. (See Pretexting, Baiting, and Phishing.)

• Software or license theft: The unauthorized copy or use of copyright-protected software. This includes pirating software and counterfeiting activation codes.

• Source Code: The human-readable version of a program written in a programming language. Source code is later compiled or interpreted into machine code that can be executed by a computer.

• Spam: Unwanted, unsolicited digital communication sent out in bulk to multiple recipients at once. Much of the time, it is sent from unknown senders. It comes in the forms of email, text messages, instant messages, robocalls and social media.

• Spyware: A type of malicious software designed to gather information from a computer or mobile device without the user’s knowledge, often for tracking, data theft, or surveillance.

• SQL (Structured Query Language): A domain-specific language used to manage and manipulate relational databases. SQL allows users to query, update, insert, and delete data within a database.

• SQL Injection: A common type of security vulnerability in which an attacker can manipulate a database query by inserting malicious SQL code into input fields. This can result in unauthorized access to or manipulation of data.

• SSH (Secure Shell): A cryptographic network protocol that provides secure communication between devices, typically used to access remote servers and systems securely.

• SSL/TLS (Transport Layer Security): TLS is the successor to SSL and provides secure communications on the internet. It’s used in web browsers, email, instant messaging, and other internet-based services.

• SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): A standard security technology that establishes an encrypted link between a web server and a browser. SSL ensures secure communication over the internet, often used in HTTPS for secure browsing.

• SSL Certificate: A digital certificate that authenticates a website’s identity and enables an encrypted connection. Websites with SSL certificates use HTTPS to ensure secure communication.

• Stack: A data structure that operates on a last-in, first-out (LIFO) principle. In the tech world, the "tech stack" refers to the combination of software technologies used to build an application (e.g., MEAN Stack, LAMP Stack).

• Static Website: A website consisting of fixed content that does not change unless manually updated. In contrast to dynamic websites, static websites serve the same content to every user.

• Stealth viruses: Bits of code that copy themselves to different locations to avoid antivirus scans.

• Streaming: The transmission of audio and video content over the internet in real-time, allowing users to watch or listen without downloading the entire file. Examples include Netflix and Spotify.

• Strong password: Passwords that are long, difficult to guess, and have a mix of numbers, letters, symbols, and capitalizations. For example: the phrase, “Johnny Appleseed loves apples” would be a very strong password, especially if it included a mix of numbers and symbols.

• Subnet: A smaller network within a larger IP network, often created to improve routing efficiency and network security. Subnets help segment a network into logical groups.

• Switch: A networking device that connects multiple devices on a LAN (Local Area Network) and forwards data based on MAC addresses. Switches help manage and segment network traffic.

• Symmetric encryption: When a single key is used between parties to encrypt and decrypt data. With only one key, it uses less memory, which is great for quickly and securely processing larger amounts of data. That’s why it is often used to protect the main data exchange in a session. But it’s harder to keep a single key secret, especially if it needs to be broadly distributed. Also called “single-key” or “private key” encryption. (See Asymmetric encryption.)

• SYN flood: Common type of DoS attack that sends a rapid series of incomplete connection requests which flood a website until the server crashes.

• Syntax: The set of rules that define the structure of a programming language. Syntax rules determine how code must be written for the language to function properly.

T

• Tag: In web development, tags are HTML elements that define the structure and content of a webpage. Tags like <div>, <p>, and <a> are used to organize and display content on websites.

• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The fundamental communication protocol suite for the internet and other networks. It ensures reliable data transmission between devices by breaking down data into packets and ensuring they are delivered correctly.

• Telemetry: The process of recording and transmitting data from remote or inaccessible points. Telemetry is used in fields like IoT (Internet of Things) and cloud computing to monitor and analyze systems remotely.

• TensorFlow: An open-source machine learning library developed by Google. It is widely used in building and training machine learning models, particularly in deep learning.

• Terabyte (TB): A unit of digital storage equivalent to 1,024 gigabytes. It is commonly used to measure the size of data storage devices, such as hard drives and SSDs.

• Terraform: An open-source Infrastructure as Code (IaC) tool that allows users to define and provision infrastructure using a high-level configuration language. It’s commonly used to automate cloud infrastructure deployment.

• Test Case: A set of conditions or variables used to determine if a software application or system behaves as expected. Test cases are integral to software testing and quality assurance.

• Test-Driven Development (TDD): A software development methodology where developers write automated tests before writing the actual code. The goal is to ensure that the code meets the defined requirements from the start.

• Thread: The smallest unit of a process that can be executed by the CPU. Multi-threading allows multiple threads to be executed in parallel within a program, improving performance.

• Thread Pool: A collection of pre-created threads that can be reused to execute tasks. Thread pools improve performance by minimizing the overhead of creating and destroying threads for every task.

• Throttling: The practice of limiting the amount of data or the rate at which a service (such as a website or API) can be accessed. Throttling helps prevent overloading systems and can manage the allocation of resources.

• Throughput: The amount of data that can be processed or transmitted over a network or system in a given amount of time. It’s typically measured in bits per second (bps) and is a key performance metric for networking.

• Timestamp: A sequence of characters or encoded information that represents the date and time of an event. Timestamps are often used in logging systems, databases, and blockchain for tracking changes and transactions.

• TLS (Transport Layer Security): A cryptographic protocol that provides secure communication over a network, succeeding SSL (Secure Sockets Layer). It ensures that data transmitted between two systems is encrypted and secure.

• TLS Handshake: The process by which a client and server establish a secure, encrypted connection using the TLS protocol. During the handshake, the server presents its SSL/TLS certificate, and both parties agree on encryption methods.

• Token: In the context of authentication, a token is a digital unit that grants access to a system. Tokens are used in security protocols like OAuth for validating user sessions. In blockchain, tokens represent digital assets or rights.

• Token-Based Authentication: An authentication mechanism that generates a token (typically a string of characters) upon successful login, which is used for future authentication requests without needing to re-enter credentials.

• Tokenization: The process of converting sensitive data into a non-sensitive equivalent called a token. It’s commonly used in securing payment information, where the original data is replaced by a token that can be used without exposing sensitive information.

• Token Ring: A network topology in which devices are connected in a ring or circle. Data passes in one direction, and a "token" is used to control the right to transmit data. It was once a popular networking protocol but is now mostly obsolete.

• Toolbars: Toolbars were designed to add functionality to the browser, like spell check, auto fill, yellow pages, and dictionaries. But most toolbars were considered nuisance-ware. Some would show sponsored results instead of what you originally searched for, or they’d impede system performance. Some even installed malware, tracked browsing habits, and collected user data. Toolbars used to be forcibly installed on user devices during software installation processes. Fortunately, toolbars are a thing of the past. (See Add-ons.)

• Topology: Refers to the arrangement of devices in a network. Common types of network topologies include star, ring, mesh, and bus. The choice of topology affects network performance and reliability.

• Topology (Network Topology): The physical or logical arrangement of devices in a network. Examples include bus, ring, and star topologies, which dictate how data flows across the network.

• Traceroute: A network diagnostic tool used to track the pathway packets take from one network to another. It shows each "hop" a packet makes on its journey from source to destination, helping diagnose network issues.

• Tracking: Following a person to see where they go and what they do. Websites can track your OS, browser version, installed extensions, screen resolution, installed fonts, time zone, language, and how long you spent on a site and what you did there. (See Digital accounting.)

• Trojan Horse (Trojan): A type of malicious software that disguises itself as a legitimate program to trick users into downloading it. Once installed, it can perform harmful actions such as stealing data or creating backdoor access to the system.

• Trusted entities: Users or websites that get an access token (or security key) after verifying that they are who they say they are. For example, connecting to your bank or your work network on a network-registered device. (See Replay attack.)

• Trusted Platform Module (TPM): A chip that stores and manages encryption keys. TPM chips won’t start a device or unencrypt data if tampering is detected. (See Firmware.)

• Trust seal: (See SSL certificate.)

• TTL (Time to Live): A mechanism that limits the lifespan of data in networks. For example, TTL in networking controls the number of hops a data packet can take before it is discarded. In DNS, TTL defines how long a record is cached before it must be refreshed.

• Tuple: In programming, a tuple is a collection of ordered, immutable elements. Tuples are commonly used in Python and are useful for grouping multiple pieces of related data together.

• Turing Machine: A theoretical machine that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a set of rules. The Turing machine concept is the foundation of computer science and algorithms.

• Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): A security process that requires two forms of identification before granting access to an account or system. This could include something the user knows (password) and something they have (a phone or token).

• TypeScript: A superset of JavaScript that adds static typing to the language, helping developers catch errors earlier in the development process. It’s widely used in web development, especially with frameworks like Angular.

U

• UAT (User Acceptance Testing): A type of testing performed by the end user or client to ensure that a system meets the business requirements before it goes live. UAT is the final phase of testing before software is deployed.

• Ubuntu: A popular, open-source Linux distribution. Known for its ease of use, Ubuntu is widely used on desktops, servers, and cloud systems, making it a favorite among developers and beginners.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A communication protocol used for sending data across a network. Unlike TCP, UDP doesn’t guarantee data delivery or order, but it's faster and often used in applications like video streaming and online gaming.

• UI (User Interface): The point of interaction between the user and a computer system, software, or device. UI design focuses on the layout, appearance, and functionality of on-screen elements like buttons, menus, and icons.

• UML (Unified Modeling Language): A standardized modeling language used to visualize, specify, and document the design of software systems. UML is widely used in object-oriented programming to represent relationships and processes.

• Underflow: A condition where a calculation produces a result that is too small to be represented by the computer’s number format. It is the opposite of overflow and can lead to precision errors in computing.

• Unicast: A type of network communication where data is sent from one source to a single destination. It is the most common form of communication on the internet, used in applications like email and web browsing.

• Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI): Newer and more advanced boot firmware. (See Firmware.)

• Unit Testing: A software testing method where individual units or components of a program are tested in isolation to verify that each part works correctly. It’s typically the first level of testing in the software development process.

• Unix: A powerful, multiuser operating system originally developed in the 1970s. Unix has influenced many modern operating systems, including Linux and macOS.

• Unsecure network: (See Open network.)

• Unstructured Data: Data that doesn’t follow a predefined format or model. Examples include text documents, images, and videos. Unstructured data is more challenging to process and analyze compared to structured data, like databases.

• Unsubscribe: The action of removing oneself from a mailing list or service, often to stop receiving unwanted emails or notifications. It's a common feature in email services and social media platforms.

• Unsupervised Learning: A type of machine learning where algorithms are used to find patterns in data without labeled examples. It’s often used for clustering and association tasks in AI applications.

• Update: A software patch or improvement that addresses bugs, adds new features, or enhances security. Software updates are critical for maintaining the performance and security of applications and systems.

• Uptime: The amount of time a computer system, network, or server has been operational without interruption. High uptime is critical for services and systems that require availability 24/7.

• URI (Uniform Resource Identifier): A string of characters that uniquely identifies a resource on the internet. A URL is a specific type of URI that provides the address of the resource.

• URL (Uniform Resource Locator): The address used to access resources on the internet, such as websites. A typical URL contains a protocol (like HTTP or HTTPS), a domain name, and a path to the resource.

• Usability: The ease with which users can learn and use a product or system. Good usability ensures that users can achieve their goals with efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction.

• Usage Analytics: The process of collecting and analyzing data on how users interact with a website, application, or system. This data is used to improve user experience, optimize performance, and make data-driven decisions.

• USB (Universal Serial Bus): A standard protocol for connecting peripherals (like keyboards, mice, and external drives) to computers. USB ports are widely used for data transfer and device charging.

• User-Centered Design: A design philosophy where the needs, preferences, and limitations of the end-user are prioritized throughout the product development process. This approach helps ensure products are accessible and easy to use.

• User Mode: A restricted operating mode in an operating system where application software runs with limited access to system resources, ensuring that faulty applications cannot harm the entire system.

• User Story: In agile development, a user story is a short, simple description of a feature or requirement from the perspective of an end user. It’s used to define desired functionality in terms that are understandable to both developers and stakeholders.

• UTF (Unicode Transformation Format): A character encoding standard that allows computers to represent and manipulate text from any writing system. UTF-8 is one of the most common encoding formats used on the web.

• Utility Program: A type of system software designed to perform specific tasks related to managing computer resources, such as antivirus programs, disk cleaners, and backup utilities.

• UUID (Universally Unique Identifier): A 128-bit number used to uniquely identify information in software systems. UUIDs are often used in databases and APIs to ensure unique identification of records or objects.

V

• Validation: The process of ensuring that a system, product, or application meets specified requirements and is functioning correctly. In software development, validation involves testing to confirm that software meets user needs.

• Value Chain: A set of activities that a company performs to deliver a valuable product or service to the market. Understanding the value chain helps organizations optimize their processes and increase competitiveness.

• Value Proposition: A statement that summarizes why a consumer should choose a product or service. It outlines the unique benefits and value the product provides compared to competitors.

• VBA (Visual Basic for Applications): A programming language developed by Microsoft that is primarily used for automating tasks in Microsoft Office applications like Excel and Access. VBA allows users to create macros and custom functions.

• Vector Graphics: A type of graphic that uses mathematical equations to represent images, allowing for scaling without loss of quality. Common formats include SVG and EPS, widely used in graphic design and illustrations.

• Version: A specific state or release of a software product, indicating its development stage. Software is often versioned (e.g., 1.0, 2.0) to track changes, improvements, and new features.

• Version Control: A system that records changes to files or sets of files over time so that specific versions can be recalled later. Tools like Git are widely used in software development to manage source code changes.

• Video Conferencing: A technology that allows individuals or groups to conduct meetings or conversations over the internet using video and audio. Popular platforms include Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet.

• Video Encoding: The process of converting video files into a specific format to reduce file size or ensure compatibility with various devices. Common video encoding formats include H.264, MPEG-4, and VP9.

• Virtualization: The creation of a virtual version of a resource, such as a server, storage device, or network, enabling multiple operating systems to run on a single physical machine. This improves resource utilization and flexibility.

• Virtual Machine (VM): A software emulation of a physical computer that runs an operating system and applications just like a real computer. Virtual machines allow multiple operating systems to run on a single physical machine.

• Virtual Private Network (VPN): Technology that encrypts the traffic coming out of your device or site. Even if a hacker captures your data, they won't be able to read it or decrypt it. A VPN is an encrypted tunnel set up between two or more sites. VPNs make it much more difficult for hackers to make eavesdropping attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, and replay attacks. This is especially useful if public wifi is your only connection option. VPNs can be hardware based or software based.

• Virtual Reality (VR): A simulated experience that can be similar to or completely different from the real world. VR technology uses headsets and motion tracking to immerse users in a computer-generated environment.

• Viruses: Programs designed to spread from host to host, just like real viruses. An infected app or file has to be started by a user for a virus to activate. Viruses can turn on a webcam, record keystrokes and site visits, steal data, corrupt files, and hijack email accounts.

• Visual Basic: A programming language developed by Microsoft for creating Windows applications. Visual Basic allows developers to build graphical user interfaces (GUIs) quickly and easily.

• Visual Studio: An integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft for developing applications on various platforms. It supports multiple programming languages and offers tools for debugging, testing, and version control.

• VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network): A logical grouping of devices on a network that allows them to communicate as if they were on the same physical network, even if they are not. VLANs improve network efficiency and security.

• VLAN Tagging: The process of adding a tag to network frames to identify which VLAN they belong to. This allows network switches to segregate traffic and enforce policies based on VLANs.

• Voice Recognition: A technology that allows computers to understand and process human speech. Voice recognition is used in applications like virtual assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa) and transcription services.

• VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): A technology that allows voice communication and multimedia sessions over the internet. VoIP is used for services like Skype and Zoom, providing an alternative to traditional phone systems.

• Volatile Memory: A type of computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. RAM (Random Access Memory) is an example of volatile memory, as it loses its data when the power is turned off.

• VPN, host-to-host: Host-to-host VPN is when two remote users need to connect securely to each other. Traffic that needs to traverse the internet is encrypted by the sender’s VPN and then decrypted by the receiver’s VPN. (See VPN, or virtual private network.)

• VPN, host-to-site: Host-to-site VPN is when a remote user needs to connect securely to a site. The host device uses VPN software while the site uses a VPN device or software to protect its internal network. Traffic that needs to traverse the internet is encrypted by the sender’s VPN and then decrypted by the receiver’s VPN, which then receives the traffic if the host is the receiver, or routes it to its intended recipient if the site is the receiver. (See VPN.)

• VPN, site-to-site: Site-to-site VPN is when two sites connect across an existing internet connection with a VPN device. Each site’s internal network traffic is unencrypted. Traffic that needs to traverse the internet is encrypted by the origination site’s VPN and then decrypted by the receiving site’s VPN device, which then routes the traffic to its intended recipient. (See VPN.)

• VPN (Virtual Private Network): A technology that creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less secure network, such as the internet. VPNs are often used to protect sensitive data and maintain privacy when accessing the internet.

• VPN hardware device: Device specifically designed to create VPNs or network devices with added VPN functionality. They include VPN concentrators, routers, and firewalls.

• VPS (Virtual Private Server): A virtual machine that mimics a dedicated server within a larger physical server. VPS hosting provides users with more control and resources compared to shared hosting, making it popular for websites and applications.

• VPS Hosting: A type of web hosting that provides users with dedicated resources on a virtual server. VPS hosting combines the benefits of shared and dedicated hosting, offering more control and flexibility.

• Vulnerability: A weakness in a system or network that can be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access or cause harm. Identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities is crucial in cybersecurity.

• Vulnerability Assessment: A systematic examination of a system or network to identify security weaknesses and vulnerabilities. This process helps organizations understand their security posture and prioritize remediation efforts.

W

• W3C (World Wide Web Consortium): An international community that develops standards for the web. W3C's mission is to ensure the long-term growth of the web by creating protocols and guidelines.

• WAN (Wide Area Network): A telecommunications network that covers a broad area, typically connecting multiple local area networks (LANs) over long distances. The internet is the largest WAN in existence.

• Wearable Technology: Electronic devices that can be worn on the body, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers. These devices often track health metrics, notifications, and provide other functionalities.

• Web API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols that allows different software applications to communicate with each other over the internet. Web APIs are commonly used to connect web applications with third-party services.

• Web Browser: A software application used to access and view websites on the internet. Popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and Microsoft Edge.

• Web Crawler: An automated program that browses the internet and indexes content from websites for search engines. Web crawlers are essential for search engine optimization (SEO) and ranking.

• Web Design: The process of creating the visual layout and aesthetic of a website. It includes elements such as color schemes, typography, images, and user interface design.

• Web Development: The process of building and maintaining websites. It encompasses a variety of tasks, including web design, coding, and server configuration.

• Webhook: A method for one application to send real-time data to another application whenever a specified event occurs. Webhooks are often used to automate workflows and integrate different systems.

• Web Hosting: A service that provides the technologies and resources needed for a website to be accessible on the internet. Web hosting companies offer server space, bandwidth, and domain registration.

• Webmaster: A person responsible for maintaining a website, ensuring its functionality, and managing its content. Webmasters may also handle technical aspects such as server management and SEO.

• Web Server : A computer that provides World Wide Web (WWW) services on the Internet. It includes the hardware, operating system, Web server software, and Web site content (Web pages). If the Web server is used internally and not by the public, it may be known as an “intranet server.”

• Website Analytics: The collection and analysis of data related to website traffic and user behavior. Tools like Google Analytics help website owners understand their audience and optimize their content.

• WebSocket: A communication protocol that enables two-way interactive communication between a user's browser and a server. WebSockets are often used in real-time applications like chat and gaming.

• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): An outdated wireless security protocol used to protect Wi-Fi networks. WEP has been largely replaced by more secure protocols like WPA and WPA2 due to vulnerabilities.

• Whaling Attack: Phishing attacks that attempt to trick highly placed officials or private individuals with sizable assets into authorizing large fund wire transfers to previously unknown entities.

• White Hat Hacker: An ethical hacker who uses their skills to find and fix security vulnerabilities in systems and networks. White hat hackers often work with organizations to improve their security posture.

• Wi-Fi: A wireless network technology that enables computers and other digital devices to communicate over wireless signals.

• Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A technology that allows devices to connect to the internet wirelessly using radio waves. Wi-Fi is commonly used in homes, offices, and public spaces to provide internet access.

• Windows: A popular operating system developed by Microsoft for personal computers and servers. Windows is known for its graphical user interface and compatibility with a wide range of software.

• Windows Defender: Pre:loaded anti:malware software from Microsoft. Windows Defender protects your computer against viruses and malware for free. It also integrates with the built:in firewall that comes with the Windows operating system and is enabled by default. However, Windows Defender does not perform VPN functions.

• Wireframe: A visual guide that represents the core framework of a website or application, often shown as a static image of a webpage or app screen.

• Wireshark: A popular open-source network protocol analyzer used to capture and analyze network traffic. It helps network administrators troubleshoot issues and monitor network performance.

• Wiretapping: Covertly intercepting phone:based and internet:based telecommunications. Any type of traffic is a target: computer transmissions, phone calls, texts, social media updates, and fax transmissions. This can be done legally with a warrant, or it can be used illegally in cyberattacks. Wiretapping only involves listening. It cannot alter or stop data. Wiretapping is also known as lawful interception.

• WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network): A type of local area network that uses wireless communication to connect devices within a limited area, such as a home or office.

• WordPress: A popular open-source content management system (CMS) used for creating and managing websites and blogs. WordPress is known for its user-friendly interface and extensive library of themes and plugins.

• Word Processing: The creation, editing, and formatting of text documents using software applications like Microsoft Word or Google Docs. Word processing tools often include features for spell-checking, formatting, and printing.

• Workflow: A sequence of tasks or processes that are carried out to complete a specific objective. In tech, workflows are often automated using software tools to improve efficiency and productivity.

• Workflow Automation: The use of technology to automate repetitive tasks and processes within a business. This improves efficiency and reduces human error.

• Worms: Viruses that start themselves after identifying system weaknesses. They don’t rely on apps or files. Unlike viruses, worms can be controlled remotely.

• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): A security protocol designed to secure wireless networks. WPA and its successor, WPA2, offer improved security features compared to WEP.

X

• X.509: A standard that defines the format of public key certificates used in various security protocols, including SSL/TLS. X.509 certificates are essential for establishing secure communications over the internet.

• X11 (X Window System): A network-transparent windowing system for bitmap displays, commonly used on UNIX and Linux systems. X11 allows for graphical user interfaces and remote desktop functionality.

• XaaS (Anything as a Service): A collective term for various services connected to cloud computing and remote access that can be delivered over the internet, such as SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS.

• XAML (eXtensible Application Markup Language): A markup language used to define user interfaces in .NET applications. XAML allows developers to create rich user interfaces in a declarative way.

• XAMPP: A free and open-source cross-platform web server solution stack package that contains Apache HTTP Server, MySQL database, and interpreters for scripts written in the PHP and Perl programming languages. XAMPP is commonly used for local web development.

• Xcode (Integrated Development Environment): An integrated development environment (IDE) created by Apple for macOS and iOS application development. Xcode provides tools for coding, debugging, and testing apps.

• XDG (X Desktop Group): A group of developers that standardizes desktop environments on Linux systems. XDG provides guidelines for application integration and interoperability across different desktop environments.

• XDR (Extended Detection and Response): A security solution that provides unified visibility and response across multiple security layers, such as network, endpoint, and cloud. XDR enhances threat detection and response capabilities.

• Xen: A type-1 hypervisor that allows multiple operating systems to run on a single physical machine. Xen is widely used in cloud computing environments for virtualization.

• XHTML (eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language): A hybrid between HTML and XML that follows strict XML syntax rules. XHTML is designed to be more extensible and compatible with XML tools.

• XLR (eXtensible Language Runtime): A runtime environment that provides support for executing XQuery and XSLT applications. XLR allows for efficient processing of XML data.

• XML (eXtensible Markup Language): A markup language used to define rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. XML is commonly used for data interchange between systems.

• XPath (XML Path Language): A query language used for selecting nodes from an XML document. It uses a non-XML syntax to offer a flexible way of pointing to different parts of the XML document.

• XPS (XML Paper Specification): A page description language developed by Microsoft for printing and document sharing. XPS files preserve the formatting of documents across different platforms.

• XQuery: A query language designed to query and manipulate XML data. XQuery is used to extract and transform data from XML documents.

• XSS (Cross-Site Scripting): A type of security vulnerability that allows attackers to inject malicious scripts into web pages viewed by other users. XSS attacks can be used to steal cookies, session tokens, or other sensitive information.

Y

• Y2K (Year 2000): A computer bug related to the transition from the year 1999 to 2000, where many computer systems were expected to fail or produce errors because they represented years using only the last two digits. The Y2K problem prompted extensive testing and updates in systems worldwide.

• Y2K Compliant: Referring to systems or software that have been modified or built to handle the year 2000 date change correctly, avoiding the issues associated with the Y2K bug.

• YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language): A human-readable data serialization format often used for configuration files and data exchange between languages with different data structures. YAML is popular for its simplicity and ease of use.

• Yarn: A package manager for JavaScript that helps manage dependencies and scripts in a project. It is an alternative to npm (Node Package Manager) and is known for its speed and reliability.

• YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator): The resource manager for Hadoop, responsible for managing and monitoring cluster resources.

• Yarnd: A command-line tool that manages and runs Yarn packages, enabling developers to use specific versions of dependencies in their projects.

• Yield: In finance and tech, yield refers to the income generated from an investment, typically expressed as a percentage of the investment's cost. In software development, yield can refer to the output produced by a generator function in programming languages like Python.

• Yii (PHP Framework): A high-performance generic web programming PHP framework for developing all types of web applications.

• Yottabyte: A unit of digital information storage equal to one septillion (10^24) bytes. It is one of the largest units of measurement for data and is often used in discussions about big data and storage capacities.

• Yottamark: A brand or technology that helps companies monitor their digital assets, ensuring brand protection and compliance in digital marketing campaigns.

• YouTube: A video-sharing platform where users can upload, view, and share videos. YouTube is one of the largest social media platforms and has become a significant source of entertainment and information.

• YouTube API: An interface that allows developers to access YouTube’s features and data in their applications.

• YUV: A color space used in video compression and broadcasting. YUV separates image luminance (Y) from chrominance (U and V) and is commonly used in video encoding formats like MPEG.

Z

• Z-buffering: A computer graphics technique used to determine which objects, or parts of objects, are visible in a 3D scene. The Z-buffer stores depth information to handle overlapping objects correctly.

• Zebra: In networking, a zebra is a type of routing software that helps manage routes between different networks, particularly in relation to Internet Protocol (IP) routing.

• Zenith: In computer graphics and gaming, the term may refer to the highest point or peak performance in rendering or gameplay mechanics, often used metaphorically.

• Zero-Day: A security vulnerability that is unknown to those who should be interested in its mitigation (e.g., software vendors). A zero-day exploit occurs when hackers take advantage of this vulnerability before the developers have a chance to issue a fix.

• Zettabyte: A unit of digital information storage equal to one sextillion (10^21) bytes. It is used to measure large amounts of data, especially in discussions about big data and cloud storage.

• ZFS (Zettabyte File System): A file system and logical volume manager designed by Sun Microsystems. ZFS provides high storage capacities, data integrity verification, and built-in volume management features.

• Zig: A programming language designed for robustness, optimality, and clarity. Zig is often used for systems programming and offers features like manual memory management and compile-time code execution.

• Zigbee: A wireless communication protocol designed for low-power, low-data-rate applications in personal area networks. Zigbee is commonly used in home automation and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.

• ZigZag Encoding: A technique used in data compression and encoding to reduce the amount of space required to store data. It is often used in video encoding formats.

• Zip File: A compressed file format that can contain one or more files or directories. Zip files reduce the size of the files for easier storage and transfer. They often require decompression software to extract the contents.

• Zombie: A compromised computer or a device that allows hackers to remotely perform malicious tasks, such as launching cyberattacks or sending spam.

• Zoom: A cloud-based video conferencing platform that gained popularity for remote meetings, webinars, and virtual collaboration. Zoom offers features like screen sharing, breakout rooms, and recording capabilities.

• Z-Scores: In statistics, a Z-score represents the number of standard deviations a data point is from the mean. It is used to identify outliers and understand data distributions.

• Z-Wave (Wireless Communications Protocol): A wireless communications protocol used primarily for home automation.

And there you have it! it doesn’t matter if you’re a newbie or pro, having a grip on these common terms can make a world of difference. Technology is constantly changing, and with it comes a whole new vocabulary that can sometimes feel overwhelming. But don’t worry; you’re not alone in this journey!

So keep asking questions, and don’t hesitate to share what you’ve learnt in the comments with others. After all, we’re all in this tech adventure together! Happy learning, and I can’t wait to see what you discover next!